Chapter Two Flashcards
Person-Centered Humanistic Counseling
Strives for congruence between the real & ideal self. Its aim is to actualize a person’s full potential & increase trust in oneself.
Another major tenet of this theory is the belief that people naturally seek growth toward person & universal goals if they feel they have unconditional positive regard & relationships.
Abraham Maslow, Alfred Adler, & Carl Rogers.
Existential Counseling
Helps people find their unique meaning & purpose in the world. This type of counseling increases self-awareness & stresses the importance of “choice” in tough situations.
The focus is on the present & future, not the past.
Viktor Frankl
Adlerian Therapy
People are motivated by social interests & by striving toward goals. Life goals drive behavior.
This method emphasizes taking a person’s perspective & then altering it to yield productive results.
Psychoanalytic Counseling
Freud’s theory based on early life experiences of an individual. Unconscious motives & conflicts drive behavior.
The goal of this method is to make one aware of unconscious desires through interpretations.
Systems Therapy / Ecological Therapy
Individuals are viewed as part of a larger living system. Treatment of the entire family & various other systems is important in the therapeutic change process.
CBT
An intervention that is highly regarded & endorsed as best practice combined with FBA techniques. The CBT approach places an emphasis on a person’s belief system as the cause of many problems.
Faulty assumptions & misconceptions must be addressed through talk therapy & then modified through role-play or other active interventions.
Rational-Emotive Counseling
Emphasizes confrontational techniques regarding irrational beliefs.
It is not used with children in school, but it is very important to consider a person’s irrational beliefs within a counseling process.
Albert Ellis
Gestalt Therapy
Focuses on the wholesome & integration of thoughts, feelings, & actions. Thoughts, feelings, & actions are the three aspects of the human condition & all must be considered when helping children.
In this type of therapy, it is important to move a person from an external locus of control to an internal locus of control.
Reality Therapy / Cognitive Therapy
Centers on choices people make & how those choices are working for them.
The objectives are to have clients take charge of their own life by examining choices.
William Glasser
Doctor Phil uses this method because he always asks his clients, “how’s that working for you?”
Social Skills Training
Typically involves four processes: instruction, rehearsing, providing feedback or reinforcement, & reducing negative behaviors.
Modeling & role play are important techniques in this intervention.
Behaviorism
Positive reinforcement (rewards) is most effective in behavioristic interventions. If rewards or punishments are used, they must be given promptly after the behavior.
This is called the immediacy principle.
Additionally, rewards must be valued by the person to be effective.
Response Cost
An affective behavioral modification method. Response cost is the removal of an earned reward that usually reduces or modifies negative behaviors.
For example, a student who throws food in the cafeteria must give up recess by cleaning up the mess. If the student is required to clean not only his or her food but also must help clean the entire area, this is called “overcorrection.”
Self-Dialogue / Self-Talk
It’s a cognitive approach to changing behavior. It is vital to understand what a student is saying to himself or herself before, during, & after an undesirable act.
Changing self-talk can modify a certain behavior.
Capacity Approach Model
The use of positive reinforcement in the classroom. There is a strong movement to support & use a child strength as much as possible.
Accommodations
Refer to changes in the environment without changing the task, such as letting a student use a quiet room to take a test.
Modification
Changing the task standard so the student can perform.
For example, a student who has difficulty with writing might be allowed to complete half the number of questions than his or her peers.
A Heuristic
Is a tool used in problem solving & is based on reducing the number of factors to consider.
Systematic Desensitization
Is a well-known behavioral technique that is typically associated with helping people with various irrational fears.
Learned Helplessness
Describe the behavior that results from the belief that one cannot control the events in one’s environment
People with a learned helplessness belief are prone to depression, fatalistic perspectives, low self-esteem, & low achievement.
People who believe events happen to them with little control have an external, not internal control orientation.
Students with an internal locus of control are typically more successful in school.
Theory of the Mind
Refers to when a person begins to understand that people have their own private thoughts, perspectives, & feelings.
This is associated with autism.
Specific Learning Disability (SLD)
Is an umbrella term that encompasses several types of learning disabilities.
Dysgraphia
A diagnostic term for writing disability.
This is sometimes referred to as a transcription disability, meaning that it is a writing disorder associated with impaired handwriting, orthographic coding, & difficulty organizing thoughts to write.
Students with this disability have substantial trouble writing cogent sentences, paragraphs, &/or papers.
Dyscalculia
A diagnostic term for mathematical disorders.
Students with mathematical or quantitative reasoning difficulties may have this disorder.
Test frequently employed to discern dyscalculia are the Key Math Test & spatial & working memory subtest from various cognitive ability test.
Dyslexia
A diagnostic term for reading disorders.
Schools rarely use this term on an IEP & instead use “reading difficulties,” or specific learning disability (SLD).
Most reading problems are linked to a phonological processing dysfunction.
Proper assessments of dyslexia involve assessment of phonological processes (for example phonemic awareness, segmentation, & sound deletion). Simple word rate reading is an effective evaluation tool.
Reading difficulties are one of the most common reasons for special education & RTI referrals.
Speech & Language Difficulties
Children with these disabilities have difficulty with expressive &/or receptive language.
Oral motor dysfunctions result in speech difficulties.
Language disorders are broadly situated in the left hemisphere of the brain.
Common speech language assessments are the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals & Peabody tests.
Tourette Syndrome
A tic disorder when a possible genetic component that can be evinced by extremely stressful events or a virus in the brain.
Relaxation, social skills training, medication, & cognitive behavior interventions are widely used with this disorder.
This disorder may involve involuntary twitching & facial expression or verbal outbursts.
Down Syndrome
This disorder is believed to be caused by an extra chromosome.
Most children with this disorder have lower cognitive abilities than the general population.
Interventions include hands-on learning, tight structure in the classroom, visual communication systems, & social skills training.
There is no cure for Down syndrome.
Autism
Behavior modification, “shaping,” & direct hands-on teaching with pictures (visuals) common interventions for children with autism. Also, the use of toys, increase structure, motor imitation, & family participation are useful methods.
Currently there is no cure for autism.
Genetics & brain abnormalities are implicated as the cause.
Bipolar Disorder
Has biological underpinnings that create large mood fluctuations from depression to elation.
Underactivation in the left temporal brain lobe & executive dysfunction have some research support at the cause of this disorder.
It is generally responsive to a combination of counseling & medication.
Depression
May have genetic links but it also has strong situational & environmental causes.
Medication is effective in many cases.
Depression treatment using a combined approach of therapy & medication is most effective.
PTSD
Is a subset of anxiety disorder. It is common & persistent extreme reaction to very stressful or traumatic events.
People with PTSD have reoccurring nightmares, hypersensitivity to environmental triggers, avoidant behaviors, & constant recounting of the stressful situation.
PTSD is commonly associated with a crisis. Stress symptoms may not show themselves for days, months, or years after trauma. Symptoms in children may be masked behind inappropriate behaviors (fighting, bed wetting, withdrawal)
ADHD
Is considered one of the most prevalent disorders seen in schools & usually co-occurs with other problems such as learning disabilities (LDs).
The disorder impacts boys more than girls.
Hallmark traits of ADHD include impulsivity, inability to sustain attention, constant movement, & lack of self-regulation.
ADHD may have genetic roots. Dopamine & norepinephrine deficiencies that cause prefrontal lobe brain disfunction are implicated in this disorder.
ADHD is largely responsive to medication treatments.
Prenatal nicotine & other drug usage by the mother maybe risk factors.
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) & Intervention
This strict behavioral intervention is typically employed with students that have autism.
ABA uses systematic instruction & repeated trials to change behavior.
Systematic strategies may include incidental teaching, structured teaching, pivotal response training, functional communication training, & the picture exchange communication system.
Discrete trial instruction as part of ABA is a systematic way of teaching that involves a series of repeated trials to teach & maintain cognitive, behavioral, or social skills.
Task analysis (key component of behavioralism) involves breaking down a skill into smaller steps that are easy to teach. In the beginning, prompts are more obvious & then gradually fade away (fading techniques). Types of prompts include physical (hand over hand), gestural (pointing), modeling, & visual.
Service Learning
Service learning teaches students social-emotional competency & empathy for those they are helping.
Three benefits related to service learning:
Learning is effective because students are engaged & curious about issues they experience in the real world.
Students remember lessons that they learned within the community context because they are real & relevant.
Service learning connects students to personal relationships & promotes pro social actions that make a difference in people’s lives.
