Chapter Twenty-Three

Question 1

How much of Britain’s population lived in towns by the mid 1800s?

Answer 1

Census returns reveal that about half Britain’s population had become town dwellers.
The escalation of economic progress and the continuing rise in population changed the balance so that by 1871, 65% of the population lived and worked in urban areas.

Question 2

What was the situation in the countryside of Britain?

Answer 2

The social structure consisted of: the landowners and farmers, the tenant farmers and the bulk of the population, agricultural labourers, with a small number of professional sand tradesmen.
Continued as before, but areas affected by rural depopulation.

Question 3

How was life in the towns less harsh for many working class urban dwellers?

Answer 3

Factory reform movement had successfully campaigned for better conditions and limited hours in many major industries by 1870.
Simple commodities like soap and matches became more easily available and affordable.
Fresh food was quickly brought in from the surrounding countryside by train and food was cheaper.
Diets more varied with more meat, milk and veggies.
Local authorities opened public institutions such as libraries.
Visible improvements in town planning and amenities created an impression of prosperity and well-being.
Sewage system.

Question 4

Who created the sewage system?

Answer 4

Designed by Joseph Bazalgette in the 1860s. Improved both living standards and conditions- cleaned up London’s water supply and removed the foul waste along the banks of the Thames. Reduced mortality rates.

Question 5

What happened to birth and death rates?

Answer 5

From 1865, death rates began to show an overall decline. So did birth rates- no solid explanation, but these smaller families ultimately opened the way to greater wc prosperity.

Question 6

What was there in spite of the higher standards of living?

Answer 6

Little security when workers lost their jobs, possibly through being ‘laid off’ or through ill health.
They might have set money aside in the Post Office savings banks introduced by Gladstone in 1861 or in Friendly Societies- or may resort to self-help through asking friends and family. Or go to the only state provision available - poor relief and the workhouse, with all the humiliation and stigma that brought to a working man and his family.

Question 7

What negative aspects of living were there in the towns?

Answer 7

Lack of commitment to improve housing as the demand exceeded the supply. Rents beyond the means of most workers.
Little enthusiasm for programme of slum clearance as not sufficient profit for landowners
1866, Treasury made loans available to local authorities for house-building, but there was little interest.
1868 Torrens Act bound landlords to keep property in a good state of repair but evidence points to limited action by central government and local authorities to improve housing stock except in Birmingham where Joseph Chamberlain carried out far reaching improvements.

Question 8

What happened to wages and prices in this period?

Answer 8

Wages fluctuated considerably according to the state of the economy.
Indication of overall rising prosperity- increase in workers’ wages in both town and country, although rural wages generally well below those of industrial workers.
Wages of Industrial workers rose on average by about 50% 1850-1875.
Same time prices rose on av by 20%.

Question 9

Why are the living conditions of agricultural labourers difficult to analyse?

Answer 9

Agricultural workers received food, housing and fuel from their employer in differing quantities and varying quality. Their dependence on their employer for housing meant living conditions for most were basic and sometimes squalid.
Improved communications, increasing literacy and the spread of information might have made the workers aware of their low position in society.
Led to rural depopulation.

Question 10

Why did rural depopulation occur?

Answer 10

Local economies in areas such as Cornwall, stagnated and wages of farm workers, already low, dropped.
Attraction of higher wages in towns and easier access because of railways stimulated further exodus.
Increased mechanisation and other improvements in farming often reduced need for labour at the same time urban industry increased need.
Depression hit farming, agricultural lab headed for towns- same time an economic boom occurred in Industrial towns.

Question 11

What was Evangelicalism?

Answer 11

Had a strong influence on religious and social life during the Victorian era. Its basis was a belief in the importance of faith in salvation. Encouraged thirift, sobriety, industry and self-sacrifice.
Important in both the established Church (Anglican) and among nonconfirmists.Most popular amongst middle and upper classes.
E.g Lord Shaftesbury, whose faith inspired his life’s work campaigning for social imprveoemt for the less fortunate.

Question 12

What work of social reform did other Evangelicals engage in?

Answer 12

Dr Thomas Barnardo- founded the first Barnardo home for orphan children in east London in 1867
William Booth- started up the Salvation Army in 1878
Booth’s good work among the London poor was incredible, supported the utterly destitute through giving relief and then basic training to make a new start.

Question 13

What became apparent during the latter half of the century despite Evangelicalism?

Answer 13

It was apparent that the influence of the Church and religion was waning during the latter half of the century in spite of Evangelicalism. New ideas and discoveries were beginning to excite the curiosity of a better-educated population. Scientific Developments.
Charles Darwin’s 1859 publication On the Origins of the Species outlined the process of evolution.

Question 14

Who were the Pre-Raphaelites?

Answer 14

An example of the continued religious beliefs of Victorian society.
A group of talented artists, harked back to a purer and more natural expression in art and tried to appeal to the ordinary working man, whose cultural development had been previously ignored.
Although the patronage of their works of art by aritsocrats and wealthy industrialists was more successful than their patronage of the working man.

Question 15

What was the idea of ‘Self-Help’? Why was it important?

Answer 15

As part of the general philosophy of laissez-faire, there was an emphasis on the importance of the individual- growing belief everyone should have the opportunity to fulfil their poetnail but must take personal responsibility for actions and be prepared to work hard to achieve aim.
Notion expressed most clearly in the book entitled Self-Help by Samuel Smiles published in 1859, which came to epitomise the Victorian values of the mid-nineteenth century of constantly striving to improve oneself.
Belief in progress through freedom (laissez faire) and individual effort (self-help).

Question 16

In regards to the Victorian belief in self-help, what was the position of those who fell into poverty?

Answer 16

Society looked down on individuals who fell into poverty and they were often regarded as irresponsible, careless and lazy rather than victims of circumstance in need of state support.
However, by 1870, the principle and practice of laissez-faire and individualism was being questioned. Government began to accept the necessity of introducing laws to regulate society and to address the most basic needs of its citizens.

Question 17

What was the situation of trade unions in the 1850s?

Answer 17

Revival.
Model/craft unions were small and operated among skilled workers such as engineers and boiler makers. Leaders restrained and respectable. Sought to improve w conditions through self-help, self-improvement and self-education. Functioned as Friendly Societies.
Won respect of Liberal politicians like Gladstone due to preference to settle disputes by peaceful bargaining rather than strike action.
By supporting the Liberal Party, they hoped it would in turn strengthen their legal position.

Question 18

What was the Trades Union Congress?

Answer 18

TUC.
Regional trade councils, whose importance lay in the opportunities they provided for different unions to exchange ideas, encouraged the setting up of a national organisation for the unions. First TUC held inn 1868 to bring pressure on Gov to give trade unions legal recognition. Annual event after its London meeting in 1871.

Question 19

How did the support of the Liberals change in 1871?

Answer 19

Until 1871 the working class electorate were still firm supporters of the Liberals- but in this year the Gov passed 2 pieces of trade union legislation which changed support to frustration and anger. 
Leaders of new model unions pressed Gov for a Royal Commission of Inquiry into trade unionism, to clarify the ill-defined legal position of the unions. During 1860s, unions had been weakened by dishonest officials and violent behaviour of some of its striking members.

Question 20

What was Gladstone’s most serious misjudgement?

Answer 20

The Trade Unions Act. It cost him working class support at the general election in 1874. Passing of two such contrasting pieces of legislation can be explained by Gladstone's strong religious faith that abhorred violence or the threat of violence. 
Skilled artisans who helped ensure the Government's success in 1868 left bitterly disappointed with lack of any real support for trade union reform.
Result= strengthen pos of trade unions and encouraged growth.

Question 21

What change in the union movement did the 1880s see?

Answer 21

It was the beginning of the organisation of unskilled workers, many of whom had endured appalling working conditions for decades and lacked any real bargaining power with employers.
Militant approach was in direct contrast with craft unions.
Large membership gave the unions funds to support some strike action, albeit not for long.
Start of mass unionism.
Spread of education among the labouring classes after 1870
1884 the right for many unskilled labourers to vote.

Question 22

What was the economic situation of the late 1870s and 1880s?

Answer 22

Uncertain. Contributed to growth of new unionism.
Manufacturing industries began to experience downturn indemand for goods and profits, unskilled workers were the first to be laid off. High levels of unemployment made wage bargaining difficult and strikes ineffective as there was plenty of labour to take over from strikers. Little choice but to accept poor pay.

Question 23

What were attitudes to education and how were they changing?

Answer 23

Notion among the middle and upper classes- purpose of extending ed to wc was to equipm people for their station in life. Fear ed would encourage social mobility.
Anglicans and Nonconformists wanted to save the poor from remaining in a state of ignorance, but competed against each other as to which of them could best achieve that.
Radicals supported Ed- foundation of a democratic society.

Question 24

What was the situation regarding the access to Education?

Answer 24

1846, Education remained privilege of the middle and upper classes.
Wc education provision in hands of two religious societies, the Anglican National Society and Nonconfirmist British and Foreign Society.
But many wc could not take advantage- not widespread enough, ignorance and prejudice prevented some parents from allowing their children to attend. Many in full-time employment.

Question 25

What developments were there in Ed?

Answer 25

National Public Schools’ Association and national Education League promoted idea of a permissive rather than compulsory education act.
1870 Forster’s Education Act, made provision for elemtnary schools to be set up across country was important in acknowledging role of state in educating children.
Sandon’s Act (1876) and Mundella’s Act (1880) Ed compulsory for children up to 10.