Chapter One: Introduction Flashcards
Psychodynamic Perspective
behavior throughout life is motivated by inner unconscious forces, stemming from childhood, which over which we have little control.
Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson
Behavioral Perspective
development can be understood through studying observable behavior and environmental stimuli
John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner, Albert Bandura
Cognitive Perspective
emphasis on how changes or growth in the ways people know, understand, and think about the world affect behavior.
Jean Piaget
Humanistic Perspective
behavior is chosen through free will and motivated by our natural capacity to strive to reach our full potential.
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
Contextual Perspective
development should be viewed in terms of the interrelationship of a person’s physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds.
Urie Bronfenbrenner and Lev Vygotsky
Evolutionary Perspective
behavior is the result of genetic inheritance from our ancestors; traits and behavior that are adaptive for promoting the survival of our species have been inherited through natural selection.
behavior patterns that help an organism to survive and reproduce are likely to be transmitted to they next generation
influenced by Charles Darwin
Konrad Lorenz
Freud’s Theory if Psychosexual Development
focused on emotional and social development
focused on the origins of psychological traits
three parts of the personality: Id, Ego, and the Superego
Id
present at birth; unconscious
represents biological drives
demands instant gratification
Ego
conscious sense of self
Seeks gratification but avoids social disapproval
Sugerego
conscious
monitors the intentions and behaviors of ego by allowing guilt and shame
Freud’s Five Stages of Psychosexual Development
Oral Stage Anal Stage Phallic Stage Latency Stage Genital Stage
Freud’s Oral Stage
focus on oral activities such as suckling and biting during first year of life
Freud’s Anal Stage
focus on control and elimination of bodily waste products. Toilet training stage of life.
Freud’s Phallic Stage
focus on parent/child conflict over child’s personal sexual exploration
Freud’s Latency Stage
focus on schoolwork
sexual feelings remain unconscious
children play with same sex playmates
Freud’s Genital Stage
begins with biological changes in adolescence resulting in desire for intercourse
Contributions of Freudian Theory
stimulated various research areas
influenced how childcare workers approach infants, toddlers, and preschoolers
influenced teachers’ sensitivity to students’ emotional needs
influenced the stage models of other theorists such as Erikson
Limitations of Freudian Theory
theory developed from his interactions with adult patients (mostly women)
may have inadvertently guided patients’ reports to confirm his views
overemphasized basic instincts and unconscious motives
Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
focused on development of emotional life, psychological traits, and self-identity
looked at importance of social relationships but focus was on the self (ego)
viewed physical maturation as major contributor to development
believed that early experiences affect future developments and/or accomplishments
successful resolution of early life crises bolster sense of identity
Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development
1 - Trust v. Mistrust (age 1)
2 - Autonomy v. Shame/Doubt (ages 1-3)
3 - Initiative v. Guilt (ages 3-5)
4 - Industry v. Inferiority ( ages 6-12)
5 - Identity v. Confusion (ages 12-18)
6 - Intimacy v. Isolation (young adulthood)
7 - Generativity v. Self-Absorption (middle adulthood)
8 - Integrity v. Despair (late adulthood)
Contributions of Erikson’s Theory
emphasized importance of human consciousness and choice
portrayed human development as pro social and helpful
some empirical support that positive outcomes of early life crises help put us on path to positive development
Classical Conditioning
behavioral theory
developed by Pavlov
learning in which a neutral stimulus elicits the response usually brought forth by a second stimulus through repeated pairings with the second stimulus
Operant Conditioning
behavioral theory
developed by Skinner
learning in which an organism learns to engage in habit that is reinforced
Social-Cognitive Theory
developed by Bandura
learning occurs by observing other people, by reading, and by viewing characters in the media
observational learning occurs by the modeling of a behavior to another person
Cognitive-Developmental Theory
developed by Piaget
Intrigued by children’s wrong answers
saw children as active participants
scheme, adaptation, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration
Scheme
action pattern or mental structure involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge
Adaptation
interaction between the organism and the environment
Assimilation
the incorporation of new events or knowledge into existing schemes
Accommodation
the modification of existing schemes to permit the incorporation of new events or knowledge
Equilibration
achieving a balance between assimilation and accommodation
Four Stages of Cognitive Development
1 - Sensorimotor
2 - Pre-Operational
3 - Concrete Operational
4 - Formal Operational
Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development
Stage One (birth to 2 years) Focus on sensory exploration; object permanence mastered
Pre-Operational Stage of Cognitive Development
Stage Two (2 - 7 years) focus on language and symbolic expression through play; children are egocentric
Concrete Operational Stage of Cognitive Development
Stage Three (7 - 12 years) focus on mastering concepts such as reversibility
Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development
Stage Four (12 and older) ability to reason abstractly
Information-Processing Theory
based on computer mode of information processing
cognitive process of encoding information(input), storing the information into long term memory, retrieving the information(or placing it into short term memory), and manipulating the information to solve problems.
most applicable to the teaching of methodological steps
The Biological Perspective
directly relates to physical development:
- gains in height and weight
- development of the brain
- developments connected with hormones, reproduction, and heredity
two primary theories: evolutionary psychology and ethology
Fixed Action Patterns
a concept of evolutionary psychology
a stereotyped pattern of behavior evokes by a “releasing stimulus,” an instinct
The Ecological Perspective
ecology is the branch of biology that deals with the relationships between living organisms and their environment
Bronfenbrenner
Bronfenbrenner
ecologist
looked at two-way interactions between the child and the parents, not just maturational forces (nature) or child rearing practices (nurture)
micro-system, meso-system, exo-system, macro-system, and chrono-system
Micro-System
interactions of the child with other people in the immediate setting such as the home, school, or peer group
Meso-System
interactions of various setting with the microsystem such as a parent-teacher conference or a school field trip
Exo-System
institutions that indirectly affect the development of the child such as the school board or the parent’s place of employment
Macro-System
interaction of the child with the beliefs, expectations, and lifestyle of his/her cultural setting
Chrono-System
the influence that changes over time have on development
The Sociocultural Perspective
developed by Vygotsky
teaches that people are social beings who are affected by the cultures in which they live
focused on the transmission of information and cognitive views that learning consists of social engagement from a more skilled individual to a lesser skilled individual
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
sociocultural term
range of tasks that a child can carry out with the help of a more skilled apprentice
Scaffolding
sociocultural term
problem-solving methods such as cues provided to the child to increase independent functioning
Diversity
sociocultural term
one’s ethnicity, race, gender, age, etc.
The Nature/Nurture Controversy
which is more influential in development - nature (heredity) or nurture (environmental influences)?
natural causes: genetics, nervous system functioning, maturation
environmental causes: nutrition, cultural and familial backgrounds, educational opportunities
Continuous Perspective
development as a process where the effects of learning mount gradually with no major sudden qualitative changes
Discontinuous Perspective
development as a number of rapid qualitative changes that usher in new stages of development
biological changes provide the potential for psychological changes
Freud and Piaget
Active Perspective
maintains children are actively engaged in their development
Passive Perspective
maintains that children are passive and the environment acts on them to influence development
