Chapter One: Disccusion Questions

Question 1

Why does the “trefoil” motif lead scholars to believe the robed male figure, ca. 2600- 1900 BCE, found in Mohenjo-daro depicts a priest-king?

Answer 1

The motif appears in sacred context

Question 2

How does the sculptor’s treatment of the nude male torso form Harappa, Pakistan, ca. 2600- 1900 BCE, differ from classic Greek statues? What chief characteristics of South Asian sculpture does it exhibit?

Answer 2

Instead of being “idealistic” the sculptor is that the represents “swelling curves of the abdomen reveal the Indus artist’s interest in the fluid movement of a living body”. It exhibits the “sense of pulsating vigor and the emphasis on sensuous surfaces would counties to be chief characteristics of South Asian sculpture”.

Question 3

The steatite seals are the most common art objects from the Indus Civilization. What were they used for and what are the most common motifs? What conclusion have scholars made from the use of trees in some seals? What does the yogic position of the figure in our example indicate?

Answer 3

The Indus peoples sometimes used the seals to make impressions on clay, apparently for securing trade goods wrapped in textiles, mostly motifs of animals or tiny narratives (humped bull, elephant, rhinoceros, and tiger). Some narratives appear to show that the Indus peoples considered the trees sacred. The yogic posture argues that this important Indian meditative practice began early as the Indus Civilization.

Question 4

After 1700 BCE art production from the Indus Civilization waned. Beginning around 1500 BCE the Aryan herding culture, which occupied the NW Indian area of Punjab, composed the first Veda. What are the Vedas? Who chanted them and in which strata of Aryan society did these people lie? What are the four strata of the caste system?

Answer 4

Vedas (Sanskrit compilations of religious learning including hymns intended for priests (called Brahmins) to chant or sing). 4 strata of the cast system: priest, warriors, traders, and manual laborers.

Question 5

The next phase of urban development was in the Ganges River Valley east of the Indus Civilization. From 800 – 500 BCE religious thinkers composed texts called the Upanishads. What three foundational ideas came from these texts? What major religion can be traced to these origins?

Answer 5

Three foundational ideas: samara, karma and moksha (nirvana). Major religion: Hinduism

Question 6

Who was Buddha and how did his teachings affect the Maurya ruler, Ashoka the Great, r. 272 – 231 BCE? What are Ashoka’s pillars, what do they represent, and where are they found? What do the four lions represent and why are their mouths open? What is inscribed at the base of the pillars? What is the chakra and how did it associate Ashoka with Buddha?

Answer 6

Buddha: a historical figure, Prince Siddhartha Gautama. Ashoka’s pillars: monolithic columns inscribed with Buddha’s laws. 4 lions represent: the four quarters of the world, their open mouths signify the announcement of the Buddha’s message. Inscription on base of pillars: Chakra: the wheel of law/ Ashoka’s stature as a chakravartin (holder of the wheel), a universal King imbued with divine authority.

Question 7

What are lakshanas and which can you find in images of Buddha?

Answer 7

Body attributes indicating the Buddha’s superhuman nature.

Question 8

What is the symbolism of the mudras found in imagery of Buddha? What four major life events are repeated in our imagery?

Answer 8

Mudras: hand gestures, conveying fixed meanings. 4 major life events: his achievement of the buddhahood while mediating beneath the Bodhi tree at Bodth Gaya; his first sermon as the Buddha at Sarnath; and his attainment of nirvana when died (parinirvana) at Kushinagara.

Question 9

Following the demise of the Maurya Dynasty in 185 BCE there was a period of regional dynasties with the Kushan Empire rising to power in the late first or early second CE with capitals in Peshawar and Gandhara. One of the unifying themes of this period of regional dynasties was patronage to Buddha. The Great Stupa of Sanchi was begun during the reign of Ashoka but not completed until ca. 50 BCE to 50 CE. What does the stupa represent, what are the elements of the stupa, and how do worshipers interact with it? What is the yasti and how does it correlate to Ashoka’s pillars?

Answer 9

Stupa represents: the world mountain. Worshipers interact: walk around the stupa in a clockwise direction (circumambulation). Yasti: a pole that corresponds to the axis of the universe, a motif already present in the Ashoka’s pillars.

Question 10

What is the origin of the yakshi, what does she represent, and how was it adapted by the Buddhists?

Answer 10

Yakshi: a goddess that personified “fertility and vegetation” and the Yakshi pose was later used to represent Queen Maya giving birth to the Buddha. Thus, the Biddhist adopted pan-indian symbolism, such as the woman under the tree, and the sensuality of the Indus sculpture tradition.

Question 11

The chaitya hall in Karle, India is an imitation of the earlier wooden structures of the Buddhist stupa. What makes them similar?

Answer 11

It has a pillared ambulatory (walking path) that allows worshipers to circumambulate the stupa placed at the back of the sacred cave.

Question 12

When did the first human representations of Buddha appear, what regions did many appear in, and to what does our author attribute their introduction to Buddhist iconography?

Answer 12

The 1st human representation of Buddha appeared in first century CE. Human Buddha’s appeared in the GANDHARA region. The introduction to Buddhist iconography is the changing perception of the Buddha himself and became regarded as a divinity.

Question 13

How does the Meditating Buddha from Gandhara, Pakistan reflect the Greco-Roman stylistic influence? What are the indicators of this? Which lakshanas are present in this representation and which of the four commonly depicted stages of Buddha’s life is indicated?

Answer 13

This statue owes much to Greco-Roman art, both in the treatment of the body forms, such as the sharp, arching brows and continuous profile of the forehead and nose, and in the draping of the togalike garment. Lakshanas: ushnisha and urna.

Question 14

Though contemporary to the Meditating Buddha, the Buddha Seated on Lion Throne from the more southern city of Mathura, India, second century CE, differs stylistically? What are those differences? What are the similarities to the nude male stature, ca. 2000 – 1900 BCE, found in Harappa?

Answer 14

Buddha Seated on Lion Throne v. Meditating Buddha: stylistically differences- Buddha images of Mathura. Similarities of the nude: carved in red stone.

Question 15

What is the stylistic significance of the Seated Buddha, Sarnath, India c.475, from the high Gupta Period?

Answer 15

Stylistic significance: The Indian notion of perfect body form and emphasize the figure’s spirituality.

Question 16

What aspects of the Gandharan friezes reflect Roman friezes?

Answer 16

The distribution of standing and equestrian figures over the relief ground, with those behind the first row seemingly suspended in the air.

Question 17

It is often the practice of political dynasties to tie themselves to former highly regarded dynasties in order to lend legitimacy and grandeur to their rule. How did the Gupta rulers do this? What were they noted for?

Answer 17

The Gupta emperors chose Pataliputra as their capital, deliberately associating themselves with the prestige of the former Maurya Empire. The Guptas were great patrons of art and literature.

Question 18

The 20 Ajanta caves that were added by the Vakataka dynasty in the later half of the fifth century are similar to the Karle chaitya hall but have significant differences? Compare and contrast the two Buddhist temple elements. What are the Ajanta Caves famous for?

Answer 18

The typological similarity of the fifth-century Ajanta chaitya halls to the earlier example at Karle is immediately evident and consistent with the conservative nature of religious architecture in all cultures. At Ajanta, however, sculptors carved into the front of the stupa an image of the Buddha standing between columns. Ajanta’s frame, however, stems from the many caves that retain their painted wall and ceiling decoration.

Question 19

What is a bodhisattva? What is the significance of the painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani, second half of the fifth century? Where is it, what type of materials were used to create it? How does the method of application of the paint differ from the Western method and what affect did it have?

Answer 19

The significance of Bodhisattva Padmapani: to gaze downward at the worshipers passing through the entrance to the shrine on their way to the rock-cut Buddha image in a cell at the back of the cave. It is located in cave 1 of Ajanta, India. Painters first applied two layers of clay mixed with straw and other materials to the walls. They then added a third layer of fine white lime plaster and then waited for the lime to dry. Then outlined the figures in dark red and then painted in the details of faces, costumes, and jewelry. They used water-soluble colors. The last step was to polish the painted surface with a smooth stone. This method has suffered water damage.

Question 20

Our author informs us that no temples were identified in the two major Indus Civilization archeological sites, Harappa and Mohenjo- Daro, Pakistan. What indications of religious practice are there in the images we viewed?

Answer 20

Buddhism

Question 21

Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced concurrently in India yet more Buddhist art and architecture survives. Why is that? What is the significance of the Udayagiri cave temples, early fifth century? What does the relief‐sculpted avatar of Vishnu represent? What political connection does it make?

Answer 21

Because the Buddhist constructed large monastic institutions with durable materials such as stone and brick. The Udayagiri cave temples significance: the site boasts monumental relief sculptors showing an already fully developed religious iconography. The avatar of Vishnu represents his rescue of the earth. The political connection is that it was a patron to a local king who honored the great Gupta King Chandragupta II by showing viewers he saved the earth as Vishnu did.

Question 22

Hun invasion brought down the Gupta Empire and allowed the rise of several regional dynasties, one of which is the Chalukya in central India. The cliffs above the capital city of Badami contain multiple relief sculptures. What is the significance of the multiple limbs, animal manifestations and physical attributes of the Dancing Shiva relief sculpture; Badami, India, late Sixth century? Why does Shiva dance? What does dancing mean in the Hindu tradition?

Answer 22

The multiple limbs and animal manifestations of the Dancing Shiva as being a superhuman god with supernatural powers. Shiva dances the cosmic dance.

Question 23

On the island of Elephanta in the Bombay harbor the largest cave temple, possibly commissioned by a Kalachuri king in the sixth century, has a representation of Shiva as Mahadeva, the “Great God”. What is the significance of the multiple faces of the god? How does this tie into the question of the gender of Shiva? How do the side faces indicate the Indian conception of time?

Answer 23

The significance of the multiple faces of the god is the different aspects of the deity. The central face expresses Shiva’s quite, balanced demeanor. The right side is female, with framing curly hair. The left is a male with a curly mustache who wears cobra earrings. The female (Uma) = the creative aspect of Shiva, the male (Bhairava) = Shiva’s destructive side. The cyclic destruction and creation of the universe, which the side faces also symbolize, are part of Indian notion of time = birth and rebirth.

Question 24

As Hinduism evolved temples constructed from quarried stone began to appear. The early sixth century Vishnu Temple at Deogarth in north‐central India is one of the first such temples. What are the architectural characteristics of these temples? Why are there guardians and mithunas protecting the doorway? What do the relief sculptures depict? In particular, what does the southern relief sculpture? What style of sculpting did the artists use?

Answer 24

Architectural characteristics = simple square building, elaborately decorated doorways at front & relief in a niche on each other three sides. Guardians & mithunas protect the doorway at Deogarh because it is the transition point between the dangerous outside and the sacred. Relief sculptors = important episodes in the saga of Vishnu. Style of sculpting = classic Gupta style.

Question 25

During the Medieval Indian period Buddhism declined and Hinduism rose to be the dominant religious practice in India. This lead to an increase in Shrines to the Hindu gods erected by the various local kings. What are the three types of temples Indian architects designed? Erected under the Pallava dynasty, what type do the Mamallapuram rathas represent? Why are they of particular interest?

Answer 25

Ma,allapuram rathas = “chariots” vehicles of the gods. They are of particular interest because it illustrates the variety of temple forms at this period, based on the earlier wooden structures, before a standard masonry type of temple became the rule in southern India.

Question 26

What is the significance of the Hindu temple to practicing Hindu’s? To what does the temple plan conform? What is the garbha griha and who has access to it? What are the architectural attributes of the Northern Vishvanatha Temple versus the Southern Rajarajeshvara temple?

Answer 26

The Hindu temples are home of the gods on earth and the place where they make themselves visible to humans. The garbha griha = “womb chamber” which houses images or symbols of the deity, only the Brahmin priests can enter this inner sanctuary to make offerings to the gods. Northern Vishyanatha Themple = has three towers over the mandapas, each rising higher than the processing one, leading the tallest tower at the rear. Southern Rajarajeshvara Temple = stands inside a walled precinct, consists of a stairway leading to two flat-roofed mandapas, the larger one having 36 pillars, and the garbha griha in the base of the pyramidal vimana.

Question 27

Compare and contrast the Dancing Shiva of Badami, India, late Sixth century to Shiva as Nataraja; Naltuna Ishvaram Temple, Punjai, ca. 1000? What materials were used for each, what symbols identify both as Shiva? What change in the religious practice is evident in the need for mobility of the Shiva as Nataraja?

Answer 27

Dancing Shiva of Badami = is a relief, has 18 arms swinging in an arc, some hands holding objects, and others form prescribed mudras, Ganesha at lower right, and Nandi at right. Shiva as Nataraja = cast in solid bronze, balances on one leg up top of dwarf, 4 arms, two arms touching nimbus, two upper hands hold a small drum (right) and a flame (left). Lower right hand in the abhaya murda, not a symbol of the god but the god itself.

Question 28

At the same time that the popularity of Buddhism waned in India it flourished in other Southeast Asian countries such as Sri Lanka, Cambodia, and Java. What Buddhist sculpture is found in Gal Vihara, Sri Lanka? When was it created and which life event does it portray? What stylistic elements does it share with the Gupta style?

Answer 28

The Buddhist sculpture found in Gal Vihara is Death of the Buddha (Parinirvana) and was created in the 11th or 12th century.

Question 29

The Borobudur Buddhist monument in Java, ca. 800, houses over 500 life‐sized Buddha images, at least 1000 relief sculptures, and 1500 stupas. What are its dimensions and material? What do scholars believe its intended meaning? How does it exemplify Asian absorption and reconfiguration of Indian religion and artistry?

Answer 29

The Borobudur is 400 feet per side at the base and about 98 feet tall. Scholars believe its intended meaning of Borobudur is a constructed cosmic mountain a 3D mandala where worshipers pass through various realms on their way to ultimate enlightenment. Borobudur’s sophistication, complexity, and originality underline how completely Southeat Asians had absorbed, rethought, and reformulated Indian religion and art.

Question 30

Cambodia has examples of both Hindu and Buddhist art and architecture. Establishment of the Angkor dynasty by Khmer King Jayavarman II in 802 began the sponsorship of hundreds of monuments and Buddhist monasteries. Each king in the Angkor dynasty added his own temple mountain with his personal god, either Hindu or Buddhist, atop. How did the titling of the Angkor kings monuments legitimize the king’s rule? What monastery is considered the “ most spectacular” monument? Who founded it and how does it unite religion and politics? Describe its architectural elements and compare it to the Vishvanatha Temple.

Answer 30

Angkor Wat is the most spectacular.