Chapter five Flashcards
Extrinsic motivation v. Intrinsic motivation
Extrinsic: Motivation from external forces, such as rewards and punishment. Can include rewards for showing a desired behaviour or avoiding punishment if the desired behaviour is not achieved
Intrinsic: Motivation from internal sources
Instinct theory of motivation
Certain behaviours are based on evolutionary programmed instincts. We are lead to thoughts and behaviors though our instincts.
Arousal theory of motivation
People perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal. We seek to increase our arousal when it falls below optimal level OR decrease arousal when it reaches above our optimal level
Arousal is psychological and physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimuli
Yerkes-Dodson law
- Postulates a bell curve shape between level of arousal and performance
- Performance is WORST at extremely high or extremely low levels of arousal
- Performance is OPTIMAL at middle levels of arousal
- Lower levels of arousal are optimal for highly cognitive tasks
- Higher levels of arousal are optimal for activities that require physical endurance and stamina
- Simple tasks require slightly higher arousal than complex tasks
Drive-reduction theory of motivation
- Motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states
- Drives are internal states of tension that activate particular behaviours focused on goals, created by ourselves
Primary v. secondary drives
Primary drives motivate us to fulfill biological desires such as food, water, warmth, maintain homeostasis. It is controlled by negative feedback loop – when our drive or need is satisfied, it turns off the desire for the need.
Secondary drives motivate us to fulfill non biological or learned desires.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Need is a long lasting feelings that require relief
Physiological (first) – breathing, food, water, sex
Safety – employment, property, resources
Belonging – friendship, family
Esteem – self esteem, confidence, respect
Self actualization (last) – realizing one’s full potential
Self-determination theory of motivation
There are three universal needs
1. Autonomy
2. Competence
3. Relatedness
Incentive theory of motivation
Behaviour is motivated not by need or arousal. It is motivated by the desire to pursue rewards and to avoid punishment.
Expectancy-value theory of motivation
The amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of the individual’s expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which they value succeeding at the goal.
Opponent process theory of motivation
When a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will try to counteract the drug by changing physiological. This reaction will last longer than the drug, resulting in withdrawal symptoms
This helps to explain tolerance.
Sexual motivation
Differences are based on cultural influences and learned behaviour
Humans are motivated to sex by secretion of estrogen, progesterone and androgens. We are also motivated by smell. Finally, we are motivated by cognition.
Three elements of emotion
Physiological response
Behavioural response
Cognitive response
Seven universal emotions
Sadness
Happiness
Anger
Fear
Contempt
Disgust
Surprise
Evolutionary role in emotion
According to Darwin. Everything we do, think and feel is designed for any problem we encounter.
James-Lange theory of emotion
First response is physiological arousal. The second response is the emotion, which is labelled by the brain.
“I must be angry because my skin is hot and my blood pressure is high”
Assumes that patients with spinal cord injuries show less emotion – this has been proven to be false
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
First response is BOTH arousal and conscious emotion. The second response is the behaviour.
“I see a snake, so I feel afraid and my heart is racing.. Let me out of here.”
Fails to explain the vagus nerve, a nerve that functions as a feedback system, conveying information from peripheral organs back to the NS
Schacter-Singer theory of emotion
Also termed the cognitive-arousal theory and the two-factor theory.
The first response is BOTH arousal and cognitive appraisal. The second response is the conscious emotion.
To feel an emotion, the mind must identify the environmental stimulus causing the physiological arousal.
“I am excited because my heart is racing and everyone else is happy”
The limbic system
Reside below the cerebellum. Made up of the amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, fornix, septal nuclei and parts of the cerebral cortex
Plays a role in both motivation and emotion
Role of amygdala
Signals the cortex about stimuli related to attention and emotion
Processes the environment, detects dues
Association with fear
Interpretation of facial expressions
Role of thalamus
The sensory processing station. It routes information to the cortex and other appropriate areas.
Role of the hypothalamus
Releases NTs which impact many different emotional states.
Role of the hippocampus
Helps to create long term memories, including the emotional memory.
Role of the cerebral cortex (excluding prefrontal cortex)
The temporal lobe has the ability to interpret facial expressions with the help of the occipital lobe.
Right hemisphere is more active when discerning facial expressions
Women have more activation of these brain areas than men
Role of the prefrontal cortex
Planning, personality, making decisions
The left prefrontal cortex associated with positive emotions. The right prefrontal cortex associated with negative emotions.
Dorsal prefrontal cortex associated with attention and cognition
Ventral prefrontal cortex connects regions of the brain responsible for experiencing emotions
Ventromedial prefrontal cortex plays a role in decision making and controlling emotions from amygdala
Two stages of cognitive appraisal
Cognitive appraisal is the subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress.
Stage 1 - primary appraisal
- Evaluation of environment and associated treat
- Can be seen as irrelevant, positive or stressful
- If it is deemed a threat, stage 2 appraisal begins
Stage 2 - secondary appraisal
- Evaluating whether the organism can cope with the threat
- Three parts – threat, harm, and challenge to overcome
- If you can overcome it = less stress
Some situations require ongoing reappraisal
Stressor, distress, and eustress
Stressor is a biological element, external condition or event that leads to a stress response. This can be minimal or catastrophic events
Distress – stressor is unpleasant (e.g., a threat)
Eustress – positively-perceived stressor (e.g., a challenge)
Can be measured in life change units, in a system called social readjustment rating scale
Three types of approach and avoidance conflict
Approach-approach conflict – need to choose between two desirable options
Avoidance-avoidance conflict – need to choose between two undesirable options
Approach-avoidance conflict – only one choice, but the outcome can have negative or positive elements (e.g., a job promotion means higher pay but more responsibility)
General adaptation syndrome
These are the three stages of the sequence of physiological response to stress.
Alarm
- The initial response to stress and activation of the sympathetic NS
- Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release ACTH
- This stimulates adrenal glands to produce cortisol, which maintains the steady supply of blood sugar needed to respond to stressful events
- Hypothalamus also stimulates adrenal medulla, which secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine
Resistance
- Continuous release of hormones allows the sympathetic nervous system to remain engaged to fight the stressor
Exhaustion
- Body can no longer maintain elevated response
- Become susceptible to illness and medical conditions
Two strategies for coping with stress
Problem-focused strategies
- Working to overcome a stressor
Emotion-focused strategies
- Challenging one’s feelings about a stressor
- Changing outlook
Can both be maladaptive
