Chapter five

Question 1

Extrinsic motivation v. Intrinsic motivation

Answer 1

Extrinsic: Motivation from external forces, such as rewards and punishment. Can include rewards for showing a desired behaviour or avoiding punishment if the desired behaviour is not achieved

Intrinsic: Motivation from internal sources

Question 2

Instinct theory of motivation

Answer 2

Certain behaviours are based on evolutionary programmed instincts. We are lead to thoughts and behaviors though our instincts.

Question 3

Arousal theory of motivation

Answer 3

People perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal. We seek to increase our arousal when it falls below optimal level OR decrease arousal when it reaches above our optimal level

Arousal is psychological and physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimuli

Question 4

Yerkes-Dodson law

Answer 4

• Postulates a bell curve shape between level of arousal and performance
• Performance is WORST at extremely high or extremely low levels of arousal
• Performance is OPTIMAL at middle levels of arousal
• Lower levels of arousal are optimal for highly cognitive tasks
• Higher levels of arousal are optimal for activities that require physical endurance and stamina
• Simple tasks require slightly higher arousal than complex tasks

Question 5

Drive-reduction theory of motivation

Answer 5

• Motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states
• Drives are internal states of tension that activate particular behaviours focused on goals, created by ourselves

Question 6

Primary v. secondary drives

Answer 6

Primary drives motivate us to fulfill biological desires such as food, water, warmth, maintain homeostasis. It is controlled by negative feedback loop – when our drive or need is satisfied, it turns off the desire for the need.

Secondary drives motivate us to fulfill non biological or learned desires.

Question 7

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 7

Need is a long lasting feelings that require relief

Physiological (first) – breathing, food, water, sex
Safety – employment, property, resources
Belonging – friendship, family
Esteem – self esteem, confidence, respect
Self actualization (last) – realizing one’s full potential

Question 8

Self-determination theory of motivation

Answer 8

There are three universal needs
1. Autonomy
2. Competence
3. Relatedness

Question 9

Incentive theory of motivation

Answer 9

Behaviour is motivated not by need or arousal. It is motivated by the desire to pursue rewards and to avoid punishment.

Question 10

Expectancy-value theory of motivation

Answer 10

The amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of the individual’s expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which they value succeeding at the goal.

Question 11

Opponent process theory of motivation

Answer 11

When a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will try to counteract the drug by changing physiological. This reaction will last longer than the drug, resulting in withdrawal symptoms

This helps to explain tolerance.

Question 12

Sexual motivation

Answer 12

Differences are based on cultural influences and learned behaviour

Humans are motivated to sex by secretion of estrogen, progesterone and androgens. We are also motivated by smell. Finally, we are motivated by cognition.

Question 13

Three elements of emotion

Answer 13

Physiological response
Behavioural response
Cognitive response

Question 14

Seven universal emotions

Answer 14

Sadness
Happiness
Anger
Fear
Contempt
Disgust
Surprise

Question 15

Evolutionary role in emotion

Answer 15

According to Darwin. Everything we do, think and feel is designed for any problem we encounter.

Question 16

James-Lange theory of emotion

Answer 16

First response is physiological arousal. The second response is the emotion, which is labelled by the brain.

“I must be angry because my skin is hot and my blood pressure is high”

Assumes that patients with spinal cord injuries show less emotion – this has been proven to be false

Question 17

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

Answer 17

First response is BOTH arousal and conscious emotion. The second response is the behaviour.

“I see a snake, so I feel afraid and my heart is racing.. Let me out of here.”

Fails to explain the vagus nerve, a nerve that functions as a feedback system, conveying information from peripheral organs back to the NS

Question 18

Schacter-Singer theory of emotion

Answer 18

Also termed the cognitive-arousal theory and the two-factor theory.

The first response is BOTH arousal and cognitive appraisal. The second response is the conscious emotion.

To feel an emotion, the mind must identify the environmental stimulus causing the physiological arousal.

“I am excited because my heart is racing and everyone else is happy”

Question 19

The limbic system

Answer 19

Reside below the cerebellum. Made up of the amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, fornix, septal nuclei and parts of the cerebral cortex

Plays a role in both motivation and emotion

Question 20

Role of amygdala

Answer 20

Signals the cortex about stimuli related to attention and emotion

Processes the environment, detects dues

Association with fear

Interpretation of facial expressions

Question 21

Role of thalamus

Answer 21

The sensory processing station. It routes information to the cortex and other appropriate areas.

Question 22

Role of the hypothalamus

Answer 22

Releases NTs which impact many different emotional states.

Question 23

Role of the hippocampus

Answer 23

Helps to create long term memories, including the emotional memory.

Question 24

Role of the cerebral cortex (excluding prefrontal cortex)

Answer 24

The temporal lobe has the ability to interpret facial expressions with the help of the occipital lobe.

Right hemisphere is more active when discerning facial expressions

Women have more activation of these brain areas than men

Question 25

Role of the prefrontal cortex

Answer 25

Planning, personality, making decisions

The left prefrontal cortex associated with positive emotions. The right prefrontal cortex associated with negative emotions.

Dorsal prefrontal cortex associated with attention and cognition

Ventral prefrontal cortex connects regions of the brain responsible for experiencing emotions

Ventromedial prefrontal cortex plays a role in decision making and controlling emotions from amygdala

Question 26

Two stages of cognitive appraisal

Answer 26

Cognitive appraisal is the subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress.

Stage 1 - primary appraisal
- Evaluation of environment and associated treat
- Can be seen as irrelevant, positive or stressful
- If it is deemed a threat, stage 2 appraisal begins

Stage 2 - secondary appraisal
- Evaluating whether the organism can cope with the threat
- Three parts – threat, harm, and challenge to overcome
- If you can overcome it = less stress

Some situations require ongoing reappraisal

Question 27

Stressor, distress, and eustress

Answer 27

Stressor is a biological element, external condition or event that leads to a stress response. This can be minimal or catastrophic events

Distress – stressor is unpleasant (e.g., a threat)

Eustress – positively-perceived stressor (e.g., a challenge)

Can be measured in life change units, in a system called social readjustment rating scale

Question 28

Three types of approach and avoidance conflict

Answer 28

Approach-approach conflict – need to choose between two desirable options

Avoidance-avoidance conflict – need to choose between two undesirable options

Approach-avoidance conflict – only one choice, but the outcome can have negative or positive elements (e.g., a job promotion means higher pay but more responsibility)

Question 29

General adaptation syndrome

Answer 29

These are the three stages of the sequence of physiological response to stress.

Alarm
- The initial response to stress and activation of the sympathetic NS
- Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release ACTH
- This stimulates adrenal glands to produce cortisol, which maintains the steady supply of blood sugar needed to respond to stressful events
- Hypothalamus also stimulates adrenal medulla, which secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine

Resistance
- Continuous release of hormones allows the sympathetic nervous system to remain engaged to fight the stressor

Exhaustion
- Body can no longer maintain elevated response
- Become susceptible to illness and medical conditions

Question 30

Two strategies for coping with stress

Answer 30

Problem-focused strategies
- Working to overcome a stressor

Emotion-focused strategies
- Challenging one’s feelings about a stressor
- Changing outlook

Can both be maladaptive