Chapter 9: Memory Flashcards
what shift in early 20th century influenced the scientific approach to studying memory?
shift from introspection to measurable experimental methods
who proved that internal processes can be
measured?
Hermann Ebbinghaus
what was the experimental approach to studying memory?
Manipulate independent variables and observe effects on dependent variables.
what was the quantitative methods to studying memory?
express observations numerically
what did the scientific approach to studying memory expand to?
studying internal processes beyond sensory-motor
functioning.
Describe Ebbinghaus’ experiments.
Studied lists of nonsense words to avoid prior
associations.
* Manipulated learning and retrieval variables:
Number of trials during learning.
Length of delay between learning and testing.
* Observed measurable outcomes on memory
performance.
Forgetting happens
rapidly at first, then levels off.
Forgetting curve
Without reinforcement, when does the most forgetting occur?
within the first few hours
How does repetition improve memory?
Repetition improves memory:
Reinforcing information helps retention.
what study method is more effective than massed practice (cramming)?
Distributed practice (studying over time)
acquisition of new information or knowledge.
* Occurs continuously, through single exposures or repeated
experiences.
Learning
retention and retrieval of learned information.
* The outcome of learning; influences the present based on past experiences
Memory
What varies in duration?
memory
Is memory unitary?
NOT unitary, includes several distinct types of memory
what changes the brain in regards to memories?
The brain changes through experience to learn and form new memories.
At the neuronal level, __________________ strengthen or weaken based on previous activity.
synaptic connections
who hypothesized about experience-dependent plasticity as the basis for memory?
Donald Hebb
If a presynaptic cell (A) consistently
drives a postsynaptic cell (B), their
connection is ______________.
strengthened (potentiation)
If presynaptic cell A fails to drive postsynaptic cell B, the connection is
_____________.
weakened (depression)
What is the hebbian rule learning?
“Neurons that
fire together, wire together.”
what did Hebb’s hypothesis initially lack?
initially lacked direct experimental evidence
Bliss & Lomo provided the first demonstration of
______________________.
experience-dependent plasticity
Persistent strengthening of synapses based on prior activity.
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
What did Bliss and Lomo discover in a rabbit hippocampus?
In the rabbit hippocampus, stimulating input
fibers increased postsynaptic electrical
responses for up to 10 hours
Critical for early stages of LTP. Found in many
postsynaptic membranes; binds glutamate, the major excitatory neurotransmitter
NMDA receptor
Normally blocked by a magnesium ion.
Repeated depolarization removes the block, allowing calcium to
enter
voltage-dependent
Calcium entry activates _______________, promoting
synaptic strengthening.
secondary messengers
Encodes simultaneous activation of
presynaptic and postsynaptic cells, essential for learning.
coincidence detector
Lack of response to repeated input leads to _____________ instead of potentiation.
long-term
depression (LTD)
Thousands of new neurons are formed in the hippocampus daily, across species and ages.
Neurogenesis
___________ have greater plasticity, potentially supporting new connections.
Younger neurons
New cells may help establish _____________ among
existing neurons
connections
neurogenesis in the _____________ could play a key
role in storing information
hippocampus
The architecture of _______________ is a potential structural basis for long-term information storage in the nervous system
dendritic spines
_______________ grow and change shape within hours in young animals.
Dendritic spines
What happens to dendritic spines in adult animals?
In adults, these spines become less plastic and more stable.
what plays an essential role in memory storage?
architecture of dendritic spines
What are the 3 major processing stages of learning and memory?
Encoding, storage, retrieval
The initial phase where incoming information is
transformed into a storable format.
Encoding
what are the 2 steps of encoding?
acquisition and consolidation
Certain stimuli are captured and
processed by short-term memory
Acquisition
Memory is stabilized into long-term storage
Consolidation
Preservation of information in memory,
categorized into different types (e.g., short-term, long-term).
Storage
The process of accessing stored memory,
influenced by factors such as memory strength and context
during encoding and retrieval.
Retrieval
Different memory systems can be understood in terms of….
- the qualities or characteristics of the memories formed including duration, capacity, level of consciousness, and mechanisms of information loss.
- the brain regions that support them
Participants hear a list of items and recall
as many as possible in any order.
List learning task (serial position task)
Better recall for items at
the beginning of the list, reflecting long-
term memory.
Primacy effect
Better recall for items at
the end of the list, reflecting short-term
memory.
recency effect
what examples of learning and retrieval variables influence memory performance?
delay length, presentation rate, study trials
What eliminates the recency effect in the list learning task?
Distraction after the end of the list
Disrupts the participant’s ability to maintain the final items in short- term memory
Distraction after the end of the list
what reduces the primacy effect in the list learning task?
Speeding up the word
presentation rate
what does the faster rate of the word presentation do?
Faster rate provides less time to encode items into long-term memory.
manipulating which two variables has different effects on performance?
- Speeding up the word
presentation rate - Distractions after the end of the list
Describe the visual report task
Participants are briefly shown a matrix of letters.
* When asked to recall all the letters, subjects typically remember 4 to 5 items.
Describe the partial report task
Participants are briefly presented with a
matrix of letters.
* After the grid is removed, a tone indicates which row participants should recall.
* When cued for a specific row, participants can usually report 3 or 4 letters.
* Participants are not pre-informed about which row will be tested
in the partial report task, When asked to recall all letters,
participants can usually report ________
items.
4-5
in the partial report task, When cued to report a single line, participants can typically recall _________
letters
3-4
When asked to recall all letters, participants can usually report 4-5 items.
* When cued to report a single line, participants can typically recall 3-4 letters.
What does this suggest?
This suggests that 9-12 letters are “available” for report in sensory memory
Brief storage of information from sensory inputs (e.g., visual, auditory) immediately following a stimulus.
Sensory memory
Very brief, lasting a few hundred milliseconds to a few seconds.
Duration of sensory memory
High, capable of holding a large amount of sensory
information.
Capacity of sensory memory
Operates outside of conscious awareness.
sensory memory is automatic
what is the capacity of sensory memory?
9-12 letters
what is the capacity of short-term memory?
4-5 letters
Temporary storage of information undergoing active manipulation or rehearsal
Short-term memory (STM)
Typically lasts a few seconds to a minute.
Duration of short-term memory
Limited, holding a small amount of information (e.g., 7±2 items)
Capacity of short term memory
Involves active manipulation and processing of information.
short-term memory is conscious
Describe the Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-store Model (Modal Model) in regards to memory
Memory as a Serial Process: Information moves from
sensory memory to short-term memory via attention and into long-term memory through rehearsal and encoding.
Describe the Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-store Model (Modal Model) in regards to retrieval
Control Processes in Retrieval: Memory retrieval involves cues that bring information back into short-term memory for conscious processing.
what was the impact of the Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-store Model (Modal Model)?
Introduced discrete memory stages with distinct characteristics and emphasized sequential information processing
what were some challenges to the Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-store Model (Modal Model)?
Research questions whether short-term memory is always necessary for long-term encoding.
describe patient KF
- Damage to the left perisylvian cortex in
the parietal lobe led to severe short-term
memory impairment. - Struggled to retain recently presented
information, forgetting within seconds. - Despite this, long-term memory, including episodic, semantic, and procedural, remained intact
what does patient KF suggest about short-term memory?
Suggests short-term memory may not be
essential for encoding long-term memories, challenging the strict serial
model.
Describe Patient EE
- Deficit following tumor in the left angular
gyrus and inferior parietal cortex. - Severe short-term memory impairment for
abstract verbal material and difficulty transposing numbers. - Intact calculation abilities and other numerical processing tasks.
- Visuospatial short-term memory and nonverbal long-term memory were normal.
Working memory is closely related to, but not synonymous with, ______________.
short-term memory
how memory is actively utilized in the planning and execution of actions
Working memory
what evidence is there for working memory?
Supported by evidence showing that a single, unified short-term memory system is insufficient to explain performance on various temporary memory tasks.
what is caused by a tumor in the left angular gyrus
and inferior parietal cortex?
short-term memory impairments
what severe short-term memory impairments occur due to a tumor in the left angular gyrus and inferior parietal cortex?
Severe short-term memory impairment for
abstract verbal material and difficulty
transposing numbers
With a tumor in the left angular gyrus and inferior parietal cortex, what stays intact/normal?
- Intact calculation abilities and other number
processing tasks. - Visuospatial short-term memory and
nonverbal long-term memory were normal.
Working memory expands on ________________, emphasizing processes involved in retaining information over seconds to minutes.
short-term memory
working memory holds content from where?
recent sensory inputs
working memory retrieves content from where?
long-term memory
what model was working memory characterized by?
Baddeley and hitch model
describe the Baddeley and Hitch model
- Phonological loop for verbal information.
- Visuospatial sketchpad for visual and spatial data.
- Central executive manages attention and manipulates information.
- Episodic buffer integrates sensory information.
In regards to working memory, what engages Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas in the left hemisphere?
verbal and acoustic info
In regards to working memory, what activates regions in the right hemisphere?
visuospatial information
Crucial for executive control, including
decision-making, maintaining/manipulating stored information, managing high cognitive loads, and updating information
DLPFC
Acts as an attention controller, evaluating the
need for adjustments and adaptations based on task
demands
ACC
Functions as a processing workspace for sensory or perceptual information.
Parietal cortex
describe the delayed match to sample task?
an individual sees a sample stimulus and, after a
delay, must select the matching option.
- Successful performance requires holding
stimulus information in working memory.
Neurons in the inferior temporal (IT) cortex
do what, even without a
stimulus present?
remain active during the delay
Since Neurons in the inferior temporal (IT) cortex remain active during the delay, even without a stimulus present, what does this suggest?
This delay activity is stimulus-specific,
suggesting IT cortex maintains object information in working memory
How is delay activity progressively attenuated?
by intervening distracter stimuli
what is the parietal cortex delay activity for?
stimulus location
Prefrontal activity reflects memory for both ______________.
object attributes and location
Delay activity of neurons in the ____________ is not attenuated by
intervening stimuli
prefrontal cortex
Delay activity of neurons in the prefrontal cortex is not attenuated by
intervening stimuli, what does this suggest?
This suggests that the PFC tracks behavioral goals, allowing for sustained focus despite distractions.
Supports learning and remembering skills and
habits, which become automatic with practice
procedural memory
Involves motor and cognitive tasks that
improve with repetition (e.g., riding a bike,
playing an instrument).
procedural memory
with procedural memory, performance improvement is seen through what?
reduced errors and faster reaction times over time
what parts of the brain play key roles in procedural memory formation and consolidation?
Cerebellum, basal ganglia, and motor cortex
Involves learning and recognizing perceptual patterns without conscious awareness.
perceptual memory
Developed through repeated exposure to visual, auditory, or tactile stimuli
perceptual memory
Affects reaction time and accuracy in tasks such as
priming, perceptual learning, and sensory adaptation.
perceptual memory
what is an example of perceptual memory?
Recognizing objects from incomplete outlines improves with prior exposure
____________ is crucial for maintaining these
memories—impairment seen with occipital lobe
damage.
Sensory cortex
implicit long-term memory that forms associations between stimuli and responses
without conscious awareness
classical conditioning
When does classical conditioning develop?
Develops when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly
paired with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually triggering a conditioned response
what shapes reflexive behaviors, including fear
conditioning, eyeblink responses, and taste
aversion?
classical conditioning
which part of the brain is critical for storing and maintaining classical conditioned long-term memories?
amygdala (emotion-based learning) and cerebellum (motor learning)
Implicit memory system where behaviors are
shaped by their outcomes.
Operant conditioning
Behaviors followed by rewards are reinforced,
while those followed by negative outcomes
decrease in frequency (BF Skinner: behaviors
as learned responses).
operant conditioning
how does operant conditioning learning occur?
learning occurs without conscious awareness and guides habit formation
which parts of the brain play a key role in linking actions with consequences and reinforcing behaviors?
Basal ganglia and associated structures
A form of learning where repeated exposure to a
stimulus reduces the response over time
Habituation
what does habituation result from?
CNS changes, not muscle fatigue or
sensory adaptation.
what does habituation allow organisms to do?
filter out irrelevant, non-
threatening stimuli, conserving attention for more important information
what type of studies is habituation frequently used in?
frequently used in
infant studies to assess cognitive development.
Stores facts and concepts about the world, often
called general knowledge
Semantic Memory
Consciously accessible, allowing deliberate recall
and articulation
Semantic Memory
how is semantic memory organized?
hierarchically, with broad categories at
the top and specific details at lower levels
what does semantic memory lack?
lacks contextual details; you know a fact but not
when or where you learned it
Which brain areas play a role in forming and retrieving semantic memories?
The medial temporal lobe, particularly the
hippocampus
Stores autobiographical events, including where, when, and with whom they occurred.
Episodic memory
Consciously accessible, allowing individuals to mentally re-experience past events
Episodic Memory
How is episodic memory organized?
chronologically, reflecting the sequence of life
experiences
Which brain areas are essential for encoding and retrieving episodic memories?
The medial temporal lobe, particularly the hippocampus
Endel Tulving’s concept of “mental time travel” describes what?
how
we relive past experiences in our minds.
results from brain injury, trauma, or neurodegenerative diseases, leading to significant memory loss. Some individuals may recover memories, while others experience permanent deficits.
Amnesia
refers to the inability to
form new memories after the onset of amnesia.
Most cases involve anterograde deficits.
Anterograde amnesia
involves the inability to
recall past events from before the injury or
trauma. Memory loss may be temporary or
permanent.
Retrograde amnesia
states that recent memories are more
vulnerable to loss than older ones, suggesting
older memories are more resilient; Older memories are less impaired
Ribot’s law
Listen to a string of digits,
repeat them back
Digit span
what do amnesiac fail at?
recalling longer
sequences of numbers
describe patient HM’s memory
- Bilateral resection of medial temporal lobes (MTL) and hippocampus to treat epilepsy resulted in his inability to form new long-term memories (anterograde amnesia)
- Despite this, he retained access to older memories,
though he experienced partial retrograde amnesia,
particularly for events in the years leading up to surgery
what is Patient HM’s situation evidence for?
Strong evidence that the medial temporal lobes are
crucial for acquiring and retrieving declarative
memories.
Describe Patient HM’s IQ/ cognitive abilities
- Q remained in the average range (103), with intact
perception and language comprehension. - Quiet and well-mannered, able to engage in sophisticated conversation and understand jokes.
- Short-term memory was intact—he could repeat back recently heard information.
- Once the conversation ended, he immediately forgot it due to his inability to form new episodic memories.
- He could acquire some new semantic knowledge, but only if linked to preoperative mental representations.
Describe Patient HM’s non-declarative learning
- Could learn and improve on non-declarative tasks such as mirror drawing.
- Showed improvement in accuracy on the first day and retained learning across multiple days.
- Continued to improve over time despite having no memory of previous practice.
- Exhibited priming effects in visual recognition tasks using partial outlines.
Describe the case of Clive Wearing
- Extensive damage to hippocampus and surrounding structures.
- Unable to form new long-term memories (anterograde amnesia).
- Retained fragments of past life, including identity,
musical ability, and recognition of wife (retrograde amnesia). - Could play piano and conduct music but forgot
immediately after. - Severe memory loss resulted in a near-continuous state of reawakening, living in “moment-to-moment”
consciousness.
Caused by thiamine deficiency, often due to
chronic alcoholism or malnutrition.
* Confusion, disorientation, and confabulation,
fabricating memories to fill in gaps
Korsakoff’s Syndrome
what does Korsakoff’s syndrome lead to?
Leads to both anterograde and retrograde
amnesia.
WIth Korsakoff’s syndrome, which type of amnesia is more severe?
Retrograde amnesia is typically more severe than
in medial temporal lobe or dorsomedial thalamus
lesions
Describe Patient PZ
- Developed Korsakoff’s amnesia, leading to
severe retrograde memory loss. - Had written an autobiography before
amnesia onset, providing a reliable record of his past. - Showed better recall for early life events
than for more recent pre-amnesia memories. - Demonstrated a clear temporal gradient in
memory loss, consistent with Ribot’s law.
a progressive, irreversible
neurological disorder and the most common cause of
dementia.
* Plaques and tangles accumulate in the hippocampus,
leading to widespread neuronal death
Alzheimer’s disease
what do the early stages of Alzheimer’s involve difficulty with?
difficulty recalling recent events, conversations, or names
As Alzheimer’s disease progresses, memory loss extends to what?
recognizing familiar people and places
In Alzheimer’s disease, Disruptions between the hippocampus and
prefrontal cortex impair cognitive function and
reduce _______________________-.
mind-wandering capacity
Describe Patient S
- ‘Patient S’ had an extraordinary memory, retaining vast amounts of information for years.
- Despite average IQ, his memory was inflexible, struggling to prioritize information and
extract meaning. - He had difficulty following narratives, interpreting metaphors, and recognizing faces due
to constantly changing details. - His inability to forget impaired his ability to generalize
As Patient S’ inability to forget impaired his ability to generalize, what does this highlight?
that forgetting is
essential for efficient memory.
Describe Patient MS
- Right occipital lobe removed due to epilepsy.
- Above-average intelligence and intact
recall/recognition memory for words, preserving explicit memory functions. - Impaired visual priming: did not show the typical improvement in identifying previously studied words compared to new words
What does Patient MS’ study illustrate?
Illustrates a double dissociation with other amnesia cases, suggesting explicit recognition and implicit visual priming rely on distinct neural systems
What falls under declarative memory (explicit memory)?
events (episodic memory)
facts (semantic memory)
What falls under nondeclarative memory (implicit memory)?
procedural memory
perceptual representation system
classical conditioning
nonassociative learning (operant conditioning)
deals with specific personal experiences from a particular time and place
events (episodic memory)
deals with world knowledge, object knowledge, language knowledge, conceptual priming
facts (semantic memory)
what types of memory uses the medial temporal lobe, middle diencephalon, and neocortex?
declarative memory (episodic and semantic memory)
deals with skills (motor and cognitive)
procedural memory
what parts of the brain are used for procedural memory?
Basal ganglia and skeletal muscle
deals with perceptual priming
perceptual representation system
deals with conditioned responses between two
classical conditioning
what brain area works for classical conditioning?
cerebellum
what brain area works for the perceptual representation system?
perceptual and association neocortex
deals with habituation and sensitization
Nonassociative learning
what part of the brain works for nonassociative learning?
reflex pathways
Receives highly processed
information from a variety of cortical regions
Declarative memory system
Binds information together from the multiple, geographically
separate cortical regions
Declarative memory
Returns projections to
cortical regions
Declarative memory systems
Likely controls a process of
reorganization in the cortex
Declarative memory systems
