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Innføring > Chapter 9 (Language & Thinking) > Flashcards

Chapter 9 (Language & Thinking) Flashcards

1
Q

Propositional thought

A

express a proposition, or statement

Example: “I am hungry” or “It is almost time for dinner”

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2
Q

Imaginal thought

A

Images that we can see, hear or feel in our mind

Example: relaxation exercise – pretending you are on a beach.

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3
Q

Motoric thought

A

mental representation of motor movement

Example: throwing something

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4
Q

Proposition

A

statement that express ideas

Example: university students are intelligent people

Propositions consists of concepts combined in a particular way. University students + intelligent people = two different concepts, but one proposition

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5
Q

Concepts

A

basic units of semantic memory - mental categories into which we place objects, activities, abstractions and events that have essential features in common.

Every psychological term is a concept.

Example: fruit

Mental category that encompasses a wide range of objects: apples, bananas, oranges and pears. - Each fruit would also be its own concept.

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6
Q

Prototypes

A

the most typical and familiar members of a category, or class.

Eagle is more of a prototype than bat or penguin.

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7
Q

Deductive reasoning

A

reason from the top down – that is, from general principles to a conclusion about a specific case.

Example: All humans are mortal. Socrates is a human. Therefore, Sokrates must be mortal.

Conditional reasoning (Watson four-card selection task)

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8
Q

Inductive reasoning

A

reasoning from the bottom up, starting with specific facts and trying to develop a general principle.

Example: John, Lisa and Sam gets a rash from eating peanuts. Therefore, peanuts produce rash. - Not allergies with those individuals.

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9
Q

Difference - inductive and deductive reasoning

A

Deductive conclusions are certain to be true IF the premise is true

Inductive reasoning leads to the likelihood rather than certainty.

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10
Q

Belief bias

A

the tendency to abandon logical rule in favour of our own personal beliefs.

Example: Jordan Peterson only eating meat when doctors tell him to have a more balanced diet.

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11
Q

Framing

A

the idea that the same information, problem or options can be structured and presented in different ways

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12
Q

The stages of problem-solving

A
  1. Interpret (frame) and understand the problem
  2. Generate hypothesis or possible solutions
  3. Test the solution or hypothesis, seeking to disconfirm one or more of them
  4. Evaluate results and, if necessary, revise stages 1, 2 or 3.
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13
Q

Mental set

A

the tendency to stick to solutions that have worked in the past

Example: used to picking up girls in america, and then trying the same technique in another culture.

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14
Q

Problem-solving Schemas

A

mental blueprints or step-by-step scripts for selecting information and solving specialized classes of problems.

Example: baking a cake

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15
Q

2 Important strategies for problem-solving

A

Algorithm and Heuristics.

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16
Q

Algorithm

A

formula or procedure that automatically generates the correct solution.

Example: mathematic division formula

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17
Q

Heuristics

A

general problem-solving strategies that we can apply to certain classes or situations

Example: Means-end analysis and Subgoal analysis

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18
Q

Means-end analysis

A

identify differences between the present situation and the desired state, or goal, and then make changes that will reduce these differences.

Example: have a 30 page paper due. Have not written a page. Need to write 30 pages. What needs to be done?

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19
Q

Subgoal analysis

A

formulating subgoals, or intermediate steps, towards a solution.

Example: LEGO-set

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20
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

how closely something or someone fits our prototype for a particular concept, or class, and therefore how likely it is to be a member of that class.

Example: Thinking Magnus, who loves philosophy, is a philosophy or psychology student/professor rather than oil-rig worker.

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21
Q

Availability heuristic

A

causes us to base judgements and decisions on the availability of information in memory.

Example: thinking shark-attacks are more typically than they are because you just read 2 articles about it – and its fresh in memory.

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22
Q

Confirmation bias

A

tending to look for evidence that will confirm what we currently believe rather than looking for evidence that could disconfirm our beliefs.

Example: looking up “Why president trump is the best” instead of “Why Trump sucks”

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23
Q

Overconfidence

A

the tendency to overestimate ones correctness in factual knowledge, beliefs and decisions.

Example: Thinking you are ready for a test, but then realizing you are not.

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24
Q

Divergent thinking

A

the generation of novel (new) ideas that depart from the norm.

Example: brainstorming for a new marketing campaign to stick out.

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25
Q

Functional fixedness

A

the tendency of people to be so fixed in their perception of the proper function of an object or procedure that they are blinded to new ways of using it.

Example: not being able to take a step back and re-evaluate.

26
Q

Incubation

A

occurs when a problem is incubating and being worked on at a subconscious level.

Example: leaving the puzzle and going for a walk.

27
Q

Schema

A

a mental framework, an organized pattern of thought about some aspect of the world.

28
Q

Script

A

a mental framework concerning a sequence of events that usually unfolds in a regular, almost standardized order.

Type of Schema.

Example: going to the movies. You already mostly know what this entails. Tickets, snacks, scan the tickets, found seats etc..

29
Q

Wisdom

A

a system of knowledge about the meaning and conduct of life.

30
Q

Mental Image

A

a representation of a stimulus that originates inside your brain, rather than from external sensory input.

Example: night time dreams.

Einstein and elite athletes.

31
Q

Metacognition

A

your awareness and understanding of your own cognitive abilities.

Metacomprehension: understanding what you understand

Metamemory: understanding how well you will remember something for a test.
- Mnemonic devices: memory tricks

32
Q

Mental representations

A

representations of images, ideas, concepts, and principles stored in the mind.

33
Q

Language

A

a system of symbols and rules for combining these symbols in ways that can generate an infinite number of possible messages and meanings.

Communicare - gjøre felles.

34
Q

Psycholinguistics

A

The scientific study of the psychological aspects of language.

  • Example: how we understand a different language
35
Q

Sociolinguistics

A

the study of language in relation to social factors, including differences of regional class and occupational dialect, gender differences and bilingualism.

Example: why Sandnes sounds different than Oslo

36
Q

Bottom-up processing

A

individual elements of stimulus are analysed and then combined to form a unified perception.

Example: details to context

37
Q

Top-down processing

A

sensory information is integrated in light of existing knowledge, concepts, ideas and expectations.

Reading a sign that says “bred” at a baking seminar, and your mind thinking it says “bread” because of your expectations and the context.

38
Q

Speech segmentation

A

perceiving where each word within a spoken sentence begins and ends.

Example: Knowing that ilovedogs is really I love dogs

39
Q

Mental Lexicon

A

mental dictionary, where knowledge about words and their meaning is stores.

Example: each word has its own book I a library, so when you hear or read the word, your brain opens the book and understands what, how, why and etc., to understand the word.

40
Q

Lexial Ambiguity

A

when there are multiple meanings for one word

Example: bank = money in the bank or River bank

41
Q

Pragmatics

A

knowledge of the practical aspects of using language

Example: “do you have the time?” - understanding this is a hint to “can you tell me what the clock is please?”

42
Q

Aphasia

A

an impairment in speech comprehension and/or production

Example: not being able to understand or produce words.

43
Q

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

A

an hypothetical innate biological mechanism that contains the general grammatical rules (universal grammar) common to all languages.

Example: certain “switches” are turned to “on” based on your language.

44
Q

Pidgin

A

a grammatically simplified language that develops in communities without a shared language.

45
Q

Creole

A

a pidgin language that has evolved into a native language

46
Q

Empiricism

A

holds that all ideas and knowledge are gained empirically (through senses)

47
Q

Connectionist models

A

learn new information through changes in the connections between mathematically simulated neurons.

Examples: grammar can be learned through repeated exposure to the statistical properties of language, without the need for an innate device.

48
Q

Language acquisition support system (LASS)

A

factors in the social environment that facilitate the learning of a language.

Example: Sofia’s Language Acquisition Support System includes her family, preschool, peers, formal language classes, educational technology, and community involvement.

49
Q

Bilingualism

A

the use of two languages in daily life.

50
Q

Multilingual

A

using MORE THAN 2 languages in everyday life.

51
Q

Publication bias

A

significant results have a better chance of being published than non-significant (null) results, which can lead to a biased presentation of the evidence.

52
Q

Null effect

A

a non-significant finding, or one that does not support the hypothesis.

53
Q

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

A

language not only influences but also determines what we are capable of thinking.

Example: people who only know a few colors would have a harder time perceiving the spectrum of colors.

54
Q

Alphabetic

A

our alphabet = letters or symbols

English

55
Q

Logographic

A

language that use signs or characters

Mandarin

56
Q

Aphasia

A

an impairment in speech comprehension and/or production

57
Q

Dyslexia

A

difficulties with developing and acquiring accurate and fluent word reading and/or spelling, which are severe and persistent in nature.

58
Q

Language elements are Hierarchically arranged:

A
  1. Phenome
  2. Morpheme
  3. Word, phrases and sentences
  4. Discourse (paragraphs etc..)
59
Q

Understanding and producing language requires:

A

Top down

Bottom up processing

60
Q

Babies

A

Perceive all phenomes

-> 6-12 months = speech discrimination narrows – only their native tongue

-> 4-5 years = basic grammatical rules

61
Q

Language

A

is symbolic and structured, conveys meaning, is generative and permits displacement.

Innføring (8 decks)

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