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Respiratory > Chapter 9 INTRO > Flashcards

Chapter 9 INTRO Flashcards

1
Q

Integumentary system

A

Skin, Separates animal from its environment. (protection)

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2
Q

Respiratory system

A

exchange O2 and CO2 between the atmosphere and animal’s cell

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3
Q

Circulatory system and the interstitial fluid tie everything together.

A

At the tissues, the circulatory system delivers O2 and nutrients to the cells and picks up the cell’s wastes including CO2.

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4
Q

Digestive system

A

break down food into chemical nutrients which the blood carries to the body cells, unabsorbed food is excreted as feces.

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5
Q

Excretory system

A

removes chemical wastes from the blood and excretes them in the animal’s urine.

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6
Q

The body is organized at several levels

A
  • Atom
  • forms molecular which forms macromolecule
  • develops cells with organelles
  • forms tissues
  • forms organ and turns in difference organ systems in the body
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7
Q

Pathophysiology

A

is the study of how disease affects the functioning of body

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8
Q

11 Individual organ

A
  1. The respiratory system
  2. The urinary system
  3. The productive system
  4. The integumentary system (skin)
  5. The muscular system
  6. The nervous system
  7. The circulatory system
  8. The skeletal system
  9. The endocrine system
  10. lymphatic system
  11. digestive system
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9
Q

Integumentary

A

Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous (oil) glands

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10
Q

Skeletal

A

bone, cartilages, joints, ligaments, red marrow

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11
Q

Muscular

A

muscles, tendons, bursea (fluid sac)

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12
Q

Endocrine

A

pineal gland, pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands (cortex and medulla), pancreas (islets), gonads.

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13
Q

Cardiovascular

A

heart, blood vessels (ateries, veins, capillaries )

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14
Q

Lymphatic / immune

A

red marrow, thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen

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15
Q

Respiratory

A

Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and the subdivisions of the resp. tree, lung parenchyma ( alveolar ducts, alveoli and the alveolar/capillary membrane)

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16
Q

Digestive

A

oral cavity, teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, liver, gall bladder, pancreas, large intestine, appendix, rectum.

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17
Q

Urinary

A

Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra.

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18
Q

Male reproductive

A

testes, scrotum, ductus deferens, prostate gland, urethra, penis

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19
Q

Female reproductive

A

ovaries, uterine (fallopain) tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands

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20
Q

The body is erect

A

with the arms at the sides and the thumbs pointing outward ( away from the body)
the head and feet are aligned forward
- in the male, the penis is considered erect in the anatomic position.

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21
Q

Sagittal section or plane

A

-A plane that divides the body along its length into the RIGHT and LEFT halves
-If the slice divides the body intor equal right and left halves the planes is called Midsagittal or median.
- If the plane divides the body into unequal right and left parts the plane is called parasagittal

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22
Q

Frontal plane (coronal)

A

A plane that divides the body into two equal anterior and posterior parts

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23
Q

Transverse

A

a plane that divides the body or organ into two equal superior and inferior parts.

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24
Q

Superior - Inferior

A

-Structure closer to the head is SUPERIOR
-Closer to the feet is inferior.

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25
Q

Anterior - Posterior

A
  • closer to the front is anterior
  • closer to the back is posterior
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26
Q

Ventral - dorsal

A

Torso
- Front is ventral
- back is dorsal

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27
Q

Medial- lateral

A
  • closer to midline is medial
  • further away from the midline is lateral
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28
Q

Proximal - distal

A
  • closer to the point of attachment or origin is proximal
  • further from the point of attachment is distal.
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29
Q

Superficial- deep

A

-closer to the body or organ surface is superficial
- further away from the surface is deep.

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30
Q

Caudal

A

At or near the rear of the body

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31
Q

Rostral

A

toward the front of the body or the cephalic (head) end of the body

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32
Q

Ipsilateral

A

On the same side

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33
Q

Contralateral

A

on the opposite side

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34
Q

Juxta

A

near

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35
Q

Right Hypochondraic (upper right )

A

Liver, Gallbladder, right kidney, small intestine

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36
Q

Epigastric Region (upper, middle)

A

Stomach, liver, pancreas, duodenum ( first part of small intestine), spleen, adrenal glands.

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37
Q

Left Hypochondriac Region ( upper left)

A

Spleen, colon, left kidney , pancreas

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38
Q

Right lumbar region ( middle, right)

A

gallbadder, liver, right colon.

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39
Q

Umbilical Region (center)

A

Umbilicus (navel), Jejunum (the part of the small intestine between the duodenum and ileum), Ileum (the third portion of the small intestine, between the jejunum and the cecum), Duodenum

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40
Q

Left Lumbar Region (middle, left)

A

Descending Colon (the part of the large intestine that passes downward on the left side of the abdomen toward the rectum), Left Kidney.

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41
Q

Right Iliac Fossa (lower, right):

A

Appendix, Cecum (a pouch connected to the junction of the small and large intestines).

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42
Q

Hypogastric Region (lower, middle)

A

Urinary Bladder, Sigmoid Colon (the S-shaped last part of the large intestine, leading into the rectum), Female Reproductive Organs

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43
Q

Left Iliac Fossa

A

Descending Colon, Sigmoid Colon.

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44
Q

RUQ pain

A

-Cholecystitis- Inflammation of gallbladder
- Hepatitis- inflammation of liver, could be viral but can cause by drugs and alcohol
- Peptic ulcer- hole in the mucous membrane lining of digestive tract

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45
Q

RLQ pain

A

Appendicitis- inflammation(fill with pus) of appendix

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46
Q

LLQ pain

A

-Colitis- inflammation of the colon, Ulcerative colitis, crohn’s disease, and infection.
- Diverticulitis are small, bulging pouch formed in the digestive system
- Ureteral Colic- most common, obstruction of the urinary tract by kidney stones.
- Ulcerative colitis is a Chronic IBD causes ulcers in the lining of your colon
- Crohn’s disease is chronic inflammatory bowel digestive tract.

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47
Q

LUQ

A

Tenderness from appendicitis, and abnormalities of the intestines such as malrotation.

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48
Q

Flexion

A

Decreasing the angle between two bones. When seated, the knees are flexed. Flexing the neck tilts the head forward about 45o (placing the chin on the chest).

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49
Q

Extension

A

The opposite of flexion. Increasing the angle between two bones (straightening).

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50
Q

Dorsiflexion

A

Decreasing the angle between the dorsum (top) f the foot and the front of the shin.

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51
Q

Plantarflexion

A

Increasing the angle between the dorsum (top) of the foot and the front of the shin

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52
Q

Adduction

A

Moving the distal end of a body part towards the midline, while the proximal end remains fixed in place. The motion made during the downward stroke of a “flapping” motion is an example of adduction

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53
Q

Abduction

A

The opposite of adduction. Moving the distal end of a part away from the midline, while the proximal end remains fixed in place.

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54
Q

Circumduction

A

Circular movement of the distal end of a part while the proximal end remains fixed in place (occurs at the shoulder when pitching underhanded in softball).

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55
Q

Depression

A

The opposite of Elevation. The movement of a whole structure inferiorly. The shoulder blades (scapulae) can be depressed. Ribs (costae) are depressed when expelling air from the lungs during exhalation.

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56
Q

Elevation

A

The movement of a whole structure superiorly. This type of movement has no pivot point. During inhalation The shoulder blades (scapulae) are elevated during a shrug. Ribs (costae) are elevated when air is being drawn into the lungs

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57
Q

Rotation

A

The turning of a bone around its long axis. It may be medial (towards the midline anteriorly) or lateral (away from the midline posteriorly). Flexing the forearm at the elbow and then touching the hand to the navel causes medial rotation at the shoulder. Lateral rotation is the opposite

58
Q

Supination

A

The rotation of the hand to face the palm anteriorly (usually lateral rotation). Rotation in the arm and hand is not caused by a ball and socket joint movement but by the lateral forearm bone (the radius) crossing over the medial forearm bone (the ulna). Such as when one turns the palms outward to indicate a lack of money.

59
Q

Pronation

A

The opposite of supination. The rotation of the hand to face the palm posteriorly (usually medial rotation). Supination and pronation can also occur in the feet,.

60
Q

Inversion

A

The tilting of the foot at the ankle to face the plantar surface (the sole) towards the midline.

61
Q

Eversion

A

The opposite of Inversion. The tilting of the foot at the ankle to face the plantar surface (the sole) of the foot away from the midline.

62
Q

Protrusion

A

Generally only applied to the anterior displacement (jutting out) of the jaw.

63
Q

Retrusion

A

The opposite of protrusion, returning the jaw from protrusion.

64
Q

Protraction

A

The anterior movement of the shoulder blades (scapulae) across the torso. Hunching the shoulders forwards is the best example of protraction

65
Q

Retraction

A

The opposite of protraction. Shortening, the act of pulling backward or the condition of being pulled back. The posterior movement of the shoulder blades (scapulae) across the torso. Pushing the chest out while drawing the shoulder blades together is a good example of this.

66
Q

Skeletal

A

(striated) muscle is attached to the bone is under VOLUNTARY control.
The origin of the muscle is connected to one bone and the insertion is connected to another bone.
when the skeletal muscle fibers contract, the insertion is pulled toward the origin.
Skeletal muscle are usually in pairs
- Abductors ( extensors) pull the limb away from
- Abductors ( Flexors) pull the limb toward the body ( usually stronger than abductors.

67
Q

Smooth Muscle

A

Involuntary control, It lines the walls of all the hollow organs and tubes ( airways, blood vessels, digestive tract, bladder, and uterus)

68
Q

Cardiac Muscle

A

(mayocardium) Is striated a Skeletal Muscle, Involuntary and has several unique features ( Automaticity, Rhythmicity, Excitability, and Contractility) that allow it to pump tremendous quantities of blood over a lifetime.

69
Q

Primary muscles of breathing (Inhalation)

A

Diaphragm and external intercostals

70
Q

Secondary Inspiratory Muscle

A

-Scalene ( Muscle along the neck)
- Sternocleidomastoids
- pectoralis minors and major
Recruited for breathing during strenuous exercise and in certain disease.
- to expand the thorax, the secondary muscle must have their origins and insertions reversed by fixing the shoulder girdle.

71
Q

Muscle that compress the chest during the expiratory phase of breathing

A

Resting expiration is considered a passive process because active muscle contraction is not needed.
- The lungs normally empty because of potential energy stored in the elastic fibers of the lung interstitium and chest wall.
- This process is defined by the equation of motion for respiratory system.

72
Q

Body cells cannot use the energy stored in nutrient such as glucose until the energy is first converted into form the cells can use.

A

That form of energy is the molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

73
Q

Cellular respiration

A

is the term for the process of breaking down energy rich glucose molecules and producing the ATP that provides the energy for cellular metabolic.

74
Q

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

A

is specialized nucleotide that consists of an adenine base, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups (triphosphate)

75
Q

ATP

A

present in the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm of every cell.

76
Q

When the terminal phosphate group is hydrolyzed ( split by adding a water molceule)

A

Energy is released for use in the cell’s metabolic processes such as muscle contraction.
- When the terminal P is hydrolyzed, two things happen:
-Energy is release and the ATP molecule is reduced to adenine diphosphate (ADP)
-The cell uses some of the energy to attach a new phosphate group to the ADP molecule, converting it back to ATP ( just like recharging a battery )

77
Q

Cellular respiration is a complex, enzyme mediated, three stage process

A
  1. Glycolysis
  2. Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle.
  3. Electron Transport Chain
78
Q

Glycolysis

A

first step in cellular resp. because glucose cant enter the mitochondria until it is first converted pyruvate.
- Glycolysis is an anaerobic process (DOES NOT REQUIRE OXYGEN) that takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell.
- Glycolysis is one molecule of glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic acid ( pyruvate)
- provide cells with ATP (energy) when O2 is low or even absent because during vigorous exercise cells use O2 faster than the capillaries can supply it
- byproduct of the process is Lactic acid (lactate), when lactate accumulates in the muscle cells the muscle fatigue.

79
Q

Tricarboxylic acid (TCA)

A

AKA as Krebs cycle and the citric acid cycle , is the second step in cellular resp.
- The kerbs cycle is an aerobic process ( requires oxygen) that occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria ( the intracellular organelles where most ATP is product)
- Within cell’s Mitochondrial Matrix, one molecule of CO2 is removed from each molecule of pyruvate and the remainder enters the TCA cycle.
- The citric acid cycle uses the pyruvate molecules from glycolysis to produce two molecules of ATP and several molecules of FADH2 and NADH
FADH2 ( flavin adenine dinucleotide) and NADH ( Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) are high energy electron carries that transport electrons produced in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle to the electron transport chain.
- The net production ( what is left over for metabolic use ) from each glucose molecule in the Krebs cycle is two ATP molecules, ten electron carries molecules (FADH2 and NADH+) and CO2.

80
Q

Electron transport Chain

A

The mitochondrain electron transport chain is the final step.
It is an aerobic ( with oxygen) process that take place in the mitochondria.
-Electron carries protons (H+) in the mitochondrial intermembrane space
- the concentrated protons contain energy
- The enzyme ATP synthase uses some of this energy to produce ATP
- Oxygen combines with protons and electrons to form water.

81
Q

The Aerobic reaction that occurs in the mitochondria

A
  • one glucose molecule (C6H12O6) and 6 oxygen molcules
    C6H1206 + 6O2 –>+ 6Co2 + 6H2O = Energy (36ATP) + heat
    -Most human cell can synthesize about 36 ATP molecules from each glucose molecule
  • Heart and liver cells can synthesize up to 38 ATP molecule
  • each product of the reaction serves an ultimate biological purpose
  • ATP is used for cellular energy
  • The water becomes part of the intracellular water.
  • The heat adds to body temperature
  • The CO2 is a waster product that the blood will transport to the lungs where it is exhaled.
82
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation

A

a cellular process that harnesses the reduction of oxygen to generate high-energy phosphate bonds in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
- the system functions well with Intracellular P02 level as low as 1mmhg

83
Q

Skeletal muscle fiber classification

A

Muscle fibers are classified as oxidative or glycolytic according to the metabolic process they use to produce ATP

84
Q

Oxidative muscle fibers

A

generate ATP by aerobic ( with O2) cellular resp.

85
Q

glycolytic muscle fibers

A

generate ATP by anaerobic ( without 02) cellular resp.

86
Q

Muscle twitch

A

refer
to the contraction of a single muscle fiber’s ( or all the fibers in a motor unit)
in response to one action potential from the fiber’s motor neuron.
- slow twitch or fast twitch according to how quickly they hydrolyze the terminal phosphate group (split the ATP molecule ) in response to a motor neuron stimulus.

87
Q

Slow oxidative ( type 1) fibers are

A

called Slow twitch or fatigue-resistant muscle fiber
- type 1 fiber split ATP slowly and therefore have a slow contraction velocity.
-contain large amount of myoglobin, blood capillaries, and many mitochondria.
- The extensive capillary network and the myoglobin supplies the mitochondria with abundant oxygen,, producing large amounts of ATP by aerobic (oxidative) metabolic processes
-The factors explain why type 1 fibers are called oxidative fibers.
- slow oxidative fibers are highly resistant to fatigue. ( marathon runner)

88
Q

Fast oxidative ( type II A) fibers

A

fast- twitch A or Fatigue- resistant fibers
- type II A fibers split ATP at a very rapid rate and therefore have a fast contraction velocity.
- contain large amount of myoglobin, mitochondria, and blood capillaries, can produce large amounts of ATP by aerobic ( oxidative) metabolism.
- resistant to fatigue by not as much as type 1 fibers. ( sprinter)

89
Q

Fast glycolytic (type II b) fibers

A

fast-twitch B or fatigable fibers
- type II B fibers split ATP quickly and therefore produce strong , rapid contractions.
- contain large amounts of glycogen
- small amounts myoglobin, few mitochondria and blood capillary
-large amount of glycogen allow the fiber produce ATP by anaerobic metabolic process of glycolysis, hints why its called glycolytic fibers.
Type II B are not able to provide a continuous supply of ATP, so they are easily fatigued. (boxer)

90
Q

Muscle fatigue

A

no longer to maintain its contraction strength or tension.
- Fatigue occurs when the muscle is unable to make enough ATP to meet its needs and when lactate builds up in the muscle cells.

91
Q

Muscle atrophy

A

wasting away of muscle tissue, ( individual muscle fibers get smaller as myofibrils are progressively lost) because the muscle is not being used.
- when the nerve impulses ( called the nerve supple to the muscle are reduced, the muscle becomes inactive and begins to atrophy.
- After 6-24 months of disuse, muscle will be reduces to about 25% of its original size and muscle fibers will be replaced with fibrous connective tissue.

92
Q

Bones of the Thorax

A

-206 named bones that make up the human skeleton
- divided into two main divisions
- axial skeleton which forms the long axis of the body, includes the skull, the vertebral column, and the bony thorax
- appendicular skeleton which consist of the body appendages, it consists of upper and lower limbs and their girdles.
- Human spine has 25 vertebrae
(7 cervical, 12 thoracic, and 5 lumbar) separated by intervertebral cartilage disk. 5 sacral and 4 coccygeal.
-

93
Q

Thoracic

A

-All twelve pairs of ribs attach posteriorly to articular facets on the twelve thoracic vertebrae
-The first seven rib pairs attach anteriorly to the sternum through individual costal cartilages. They are called true or vertebrosternal ribs.
-Ribs 8, 9, and10 attach through a cartilage attached to the 7th rib. They are called false or vertebrocondral ribs.
-Ribs 11 and 12 are called floating ribs, but they don’t just hang there, they are supported between the muscles of the abdominal wall.

94
Q

The left and right shoulder (pectoral) girdles consist

A

of the clavicles (collar bones) attached to the sternum and the scapula, as well as the scapulae (shoulder blades) attached to each clavicle and humerus (the upper arm bone).
- tipod position-The position stabilizes the pectoral girdles and provides origins for the muscle groups that patients use as accessory muscles of breathing to expand the thorax during inspiration.

95
Q

Body Cavities

A

The two main body cavities are the dorsal (posterior) and ventral (anterior) cavities. The ventral cavity is subdivided into the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
1.They support the internal organs and protect them from damage.
2.
They allow the organs to change their size and shape, as when the lungs, stomach, and bladder get larger and smaller during breathing, feeding, and urine production.

96
Q

The Thoracic cavity

A

includes all the space in the ventral body cavity above the diaphragm muscle
It is divided into the right and left pleural cavities that contain the lungs. The space between the pleural cavities is called the mediastinum
The mediastinum contains the pericardium, the serous membrane that holds the heart
The thoracic cavity contains the mediastinum (mediastinal cavity), the pleural cavities, and the pericardial cavity
The thoracic cavity is lined by three serous membranes called the (two) pleural membranes and the pericardial membrane

97
Q

The pleural cavities

A

The two pleural cavities are closed, membrane-lined, sterile anatomical subdivisions of the ventral cavity and the thoracic cavity.
*
The pleural cavities are located lateral to the mediastinum and the pericardial sac on the anterior aspect of the trunk, within the confines of the rib cage.
*
The pleural cavities are lined with the serous pleural membrane layers called the pleurae.
*
They house the right and left lungs.

98
Q

The pericardial cavity

A

Is located in the inferior portion of the mediastinum on the anterior trunk, posterior to the sternum and within the confines of the rib cage.
*
The pericardial cavity is a closed, sterile, membrane-lined, anatomical subdivision of the ventral body cavity and of the thoracic cavity that houses the heart It is lined with a serous membrane called the pericardial membrane (pericardium) that forms the pericardial sac around the heart.
*
The pericardial cavity is actually the small space between the visceral and parietal layers of the pericardial sac.
*
It provides a protected, lubricated space for the heart to contract

99
Q

The mediastinum

A

The mediastinum is a closed, sterile space which houses the heart in its pericardial sac, the great vessels, the trachea, the esophagus, and the thymus.
*
The mediastinum is not lined with a serous membrane.
*
It a subdivision of both the ventral and the thoracic body cavities.
*
The mediastinum is located medially between the two pleural cavities and between the thoracic vertebral column and the sternum

100
Q

The Abdominopelvic cavity includes

A

all the space below the diaphragm muscle.–
The abdominal cavity contains the liver, pancreas, stomach, small intestines, colon and some other organs

101
Q

The pelvic cavity

A

some of the reproductive organs, the urinary bladder, and the distal colon.

102
Q

The dorsal cavity includes the cranial cavity

A

the space inside the skull that contains the brain, and the vertebral (spinal) cavity, which is the space inside the vertebral column that contains the spinal cord.

103
Q

The diaphragm

A

The diaphragm separates the ventral cavity into a superior thoracic cavity and an inferior abdominopelvic cavity
the cavity will be partitioned by a muscular sheet (the diaphragm).

104
Q

The dorsal body cavity:

A

The closed, sterile, membrane-lined, anatomical space which houses the structures of the central nervous system (CNS).
*
The dorsal cavity is located medially on the posterior aspect of the head and trunk.
*
It is housed within the confines of the skull and the vertebrae.
*
The dorsal cavity is arbitrarily subdivided into a cranial cavity containing the brain and a vertebral cavity containing the spinal cord and the roots of the spinal nerves.
*
It is lined with three connective tissue layers known as the meninges.

105
Q

The cranial cavity

A

The cranial cavity is the partially closed, sterile, membrane-lined anatomical subdivision of the dorsal body cavity.
*
The cranial cavity houses the superior portion of the central nervous system:

*
The brain is lined by three connective tissue layers known as the cerebral meninges: the dura mater, the arachnoid, and pia mater. The brain is located medially in the head and housed within the confines of the skull. The skull contains the brain, cerebral blood vessels, the pituitary gland, and the roots of the cranial nerves; it provides a protected space for the brain.

106
Q

The vertebral cavity

A

Is also a partially closed, sterile, membrane-lined anatomical space. It is a subdivision of the dorsal body cavity, which houses the inferior portion of the central nervous system: the spinal cord; its lining are the three connective tissue layers known as the spinal meninges. Like the meninges covering the brain, they are called the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater. The vertebral cavity is located medially on the posterior of the trunk. The cavity is housed within the confines of the vertebrae. It contains the spinal cord, spinal blood vessels, adipose tissue, and the roots of the spinal nerves. Like the skull, the vertebral cavity provides a protected space for the spinal cord.

107
Q

Autonomic Nervous system

A

The nervous system controls the body’s immediate response to stimuli by coordinating the activities of other organs and organ systems

The nervous system consists of the brain, the spinal cord, nerve cells, and numerous sensory receptors (not to be confused with cell membrane receptors) that detect conditions inside and outside the body. A few examples of the conditions that the sensory receptors (sensors) detect include:
*
Changes in ambient light level, internal and external temperature, O2 and CO2 levels in the blood, stretching of tissue, etc.
*
These changes are called stimuli and they produce an electrical signal called a nerve impulse.

Anatomically (where structures are located), the nervous system can be divided it into two portions:
*
A central subdivision called the central nervous system (CNS).
*
A peripheral subdivision called the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

108
Q

ANS controls involuntary vital functions

A

it is divided into two branches
Sympathetic and parasympathetic

109
Q

Sympathetic branch

A
  • prepares the body for emergencies by regulating functions that expend energy
  • It functions via epinephrine and norepinepherine (NE) acting primarily on the beta 2 (ββ2) receptors.
    -(ββ2 stimulation causes bronchodilation).
    -Other non-autonomic nervous and biochemical stimuli, including increased CO2, will dilate bronchioles, lower airway resistance and increase air flow.
    -In homeostasis its main function is to suppress the parasympathetic branch just enough to let the body carry out normal processes that require energy expenditure.
    During physical or emotional stress, it dominates the parasympathetic branch
    The Fight or Flight Response and the “E Situations” will aid in remembering most of the sympathetic responses:
    Emergency,Exercise,Embarrassment.
110
Q

The parasympathetic branch

A

mostly regulates body functions that conserve or restore energy
-It functions via acetylcholine (ACh) acting on the muscarinic receptors found in all the muscles and glands that are innervated by the parasympathetic branch
-Muscarinic stimulation causes bradycardia, bronchoconstriction and mucus secretion.
-It usually acts to slow metabolism to reduce energy expenditure.
-Parasympathetic stimulation of smooth muscles and glands of the gastro-intestinal tract are normally dominant over sympathetic impulses.
-This allows food to be digested and absorbed.
The acronym SLUD describes many parasympathetic responses:
S-salivation,L-lacrimation,*
U-urination,*D-defecation.

111
Q

CNS

A

The CNS is in the dorsal body cavity and consists of the brain and the nerves of the spinal cord.
*
The CNS receives sensory information, integrates, and processes the information and then transmits the appropriate motor commands to effectors, muscles and glands that produce the response

112
Q

PNS peripheral nervous

A

The peripheral nervous system consists of all the nervous tissue located outside of the brain and the spinal cord.
*The PNS nerves act as a communications network that caries sensory impulses to the CNS and commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.
Cranial nerves are PNS nerves that extend from the brain.

*Cranial nerves carry impulses both to and from the brain.
*Spinal nerves are PNS nerves that extend from the spinal cord.
*Spinal nerves carry impulses both to and from the spinal cord.

113
Q

Directionally (the direction impulses travel)

A

the nervous system can also be subdivided into two branches according to the direction impulses travel:
*
An afferent (Latin to carry toward) sends nerve impulses from sensors to the brain.
*
An efferent (Latin to carry away) sends impulses from the brain to effectors (muscles and glands)
*
The afferents and effere are further subdivided into somatic and visceral branches.
*
The somatic motor subdivision carries signals to the skeletal muscles.
*
The visceral motor subdivision (aka the autonomic nervous system) carries signals to glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. The autonomic branch is the name of the visceral motor subdivision and is usually called the autonomic nervous system (ANS).

114
Q

Three divisions of the ANS

A

1.Sympathetic (thoracolumbar division),
2.Parasympathetic (craniosacral division),
3.Enteric (intrinsic innervation of the digestive tract).
-Catecholamines (catechol + amine) are chemicals synthesized in the brain, the adrenal medulla, and by some sympathetic nerve fibers*
They act as neurotransmitters and hormones.
*They are released into the blood during times of physical or emotional stress. The major catecholamines are dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine (formerly called adrenalin)

115
Q

Receptors

A

as proteins that control a particular physiological function by recognizing a specific molecular shape. The shape recognition response is explained by the lock and key theory.

116
Q

Agonist drugs

A

are molecules that bind to a receptor and activate it producing changes in the cell.
Agonists that mimic (copy) the body’s own regulatory functions are called mimetic agents.
*For example, drugs that stimulate the sympathetic branch of the ANS are called sympathomimetic drugs

117
Q

Antagonist drugs

A

are molecules that attenuate (reduce) the action of an agonist.
*
Some antagonists can block the activity of other agonists and inhibit (block) the agonist’s function.
*
Agonists that block receptors from responding to an agonist stimulation

118
Q

Membrane has several meanings

A

-At the cellular level, membranes are lipid bilayers that regulate passage of ions and solutes in and out of the cell.
-At the tissue level, membranes are thin, pliable layers of cells that line tubes or cavities, cover internal organs, and serve as barriers (e.g., the basement membranes that separate the epithelial layer from the connective tissue layer).
-At the organ level, epithelia and connective tissue combine to form protective membranes.
Epithelial tissue membranes consist of an epithelial layer and an underlying connective tissue layer.

119
Q

There are three principal types of epithelial membranes:

A

Cutaneous membranes: The skin
Mucous membranes: The term refers to their location, not every mucous (an adjective) membrane secrets mucus (a noun).
Serous membranes: Have a secretory epithelial layer on top of a connective tissue base (called a basement membrane).

120
Q

Connective tissue membranes

A

Connective tissue membranes lack epithelial tissue. There are two principal types of connective tissue membranes:
1.
Synovial membranes (cover joints and secrete synovial fluid for lubrication).
2.
Meninges membranes (the three membrane layers that cover the spinal cord and the brain).

121
Q

Tissue

A

The term tissue refers to groups of similar cells that perform a particular function. The body has four principal tissue types, classified according to their structure and function
1.
Epithelial tissue, covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs, body cavities, tubes and ducts, and forms glands.
–Epithelial tissue membranes are major components of the pulmonary and cardiovascular systems

2.Connective tissue, protects and supports the body and its organs, holds organs together, stores reserve energy as fat, and functions in the immune response. Types include loose, dense, fibrous, elastic, osseous, adipose, cartilage, and blood.
–Loose (areolar) connective tissue holds organs and epithelia in place. Loose connective tissue contains collagen and elastin.
–Dense connective tissue has strong closely packed collagen fibers. It forms the ligaments and tendons.
Blood, bone, cartilage, and adipose tissue are specialized connective tissues
3.Muscle tissue provides the physical force for movement
4.Nervous tissue produces the nerve impulses that control body activities

122
Q

Epithelial tissue

A

Epithelium serves many purposes, including protection, filtration, lubrication, secretion, absorption, and sensory perception
*
Epithelial tissue is divided into two broad types:.
–
Covering and Lining Epithelium makes up the outer layer of the skin and of some internal organs. It also forms the inner lining of blood vessels, ducts, body cavities, and the inner lining of the respiratory, digestive, urinary (excretory), and reproductive tracts.
–
Glandular Epithelium makes up the secreting portion of glands. It also combines with nervous tissue to make up the special sense organs (smell, hearing, vision, and touch
*
Epithelial cells have an apical surface and a basal surface.
–
The apical surface points toward the body cavity, the lining of the internal organ, or the exterior of the body depending on which epithelial tissue the cell is part of.
–
The basal surface of the cell is attached to a basement membrane

123
Q

Epithelial tissue types

A
  • Simple squamous, lines blood vessels and air sacs, permits exchange of nutrients, waste and gases
  • Simple cuboidal, lines kidney tubules and gland, secretes and reabsorbs water and small molecules
  • Simple columnar, lines most digestive organs, absorbs nutrients, produces mucus.
  • Stratified squamous, outlayer of skin, mouth and vagina
  • Stratified cuboidal, lines ducts of sweat glands, secretes water IONs
  • Stratified columnar, lines epididymus, mammary glands, larynx. secretes mucus
124
Q

Mucous membranes

A

line body cavities that open directly to the environment.
-They consist of an epithelial layer over a layer of areolar (loose connective) tissue called the lamina propria
-The lamina propria binds the epithelium to the underlying structures and allows the membrane to have some flexibility. The lamina propria also contains blood vessels and nerves. A thin basement membrane separates the epithelium from the lamina propria
-The basement membrane contains basal cells which replace ciliated cells and goblet cells as needed. O2 and CO2 diffuse to and from the lamina propria through the basement membrane to supply the metabolic needs of the epithelial cells
-The airway mucus secreting glands and cells produce about 100 ml of mucus per day
-Submucosal glands are the main source of mucus in the larger airways
-Airway mucous membranes warm and humidify inhaled air

125
Q

Serous Membranes

A

-Each Serous membrane is composed of secretory epithelial layer on top of a connective tissue layer.
-The epithelial layer (aka mesothelium), consists of a single layer of avascular, flat nucleated cells which secrete a small quantity of lubricating serous fluid that accumulates in the space between the layers.
-Serous fluid has a consistency similar tomucus.
-The mesothelial cells are bound tightly to the underlying loose connective tissue layer. The connective tissue layer provides the blood vessels and nerves for the overlying secretory layer
-It also serves as the binding layer which allows the whole serous membrane to adhere to organs and other structures.
-The serous membranes that line the ventral body cavities consist of two separate layers, a visceral layer and a parietal layer
*There are four serous membranes:
1.pericardium,
2.pleura,
3.peritoneum,
4.vaginal process.
-There are four major serous membrane cavities:
1.pericardial,
2.peritoneal, &
3.two pleural (right and left to hold the lungs).

126
Q

Serous membrane Cavities

A

-Serous membranes line body cavities that do not have a normal opening to the environment
-These serous membranes consist of one membrane sheet that folds over itself
-Cells of the epithelial layer secrete a very small amount (normally about 10-18 ml) The fluid “separates” the membrane layers and lubricates them to reduce friction when they slide over each other during organ and muscle movement
-The potential space between the layers is called a serous cavity, even though it may only be as wide as the layer of fluid molecules.
*The pleura and the pericardium are two examples of serous membranes with “cavities.”
- Parietal membrane layer - lines the body cavity that contains the organ
-Visceral membrane layer- covers the organ

127
Q

Cartilage

A

-is a strong, flexible dense connective tissue made of cells called chondrocytes embedded in a jell-like matrix strengthened with collagen fibers and sometimes elastin
-There are three types of cartilage: hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and fibrocartilage.
*Fibrocartilage is the strongest type because it contains more collagen than the other types
-Articular cartilages (the fibrocartilages that connect bones at joints) are avascular.
*These cartilages get their O2 and nutrients from the surrounding joint fluid.
*When a joint is loaded (bears weight) the pressure squeezes wastes out of the cartilage.
*When the pressure is relaxed, the fluid seeps back in carrying fresh oxygen and nutrients.

128
Q

Ligaments

A

are strong, ropelike bands of dense connective tissue that connect bones together at their joints.
Ligaments allow the joints to have their full range of motion but prevent excessive movement of the joint.
*Normal ligaments and tendons are made of Type 1 collagen fibers that are arranged in parallel bundles with the spaces between the bundles (interspaces).
*The interspaces are filled with proteoglycans (building block molecules for both connective tissues and for mucus).
*With prolonged bed rest, the first detectable change in ligaments is a decrease in the proteoglycan content which allows the collagen fibers to get closer together and shrink (atrophy) pulling the bones of the joint into an abnormal position

129
Q

Tendons

A

are also bands of dense connective tissue
*Tendons serve as the structural links that connect skeletal muscles to bones.
*Tendons are more compliant than ligaments because they contain more elastic fibers.

130
Q

Protein

A

complex organic molecules that make up about 12 -18% of the mass of a lean adult’s body. Human proteins are made from about 20 types of amino acid building blocks.
-The amino acids are held together by peptide bonds:
̶two amino acids form a dipeptide, three a tripeptide, adding more forms a polypeptide
-The sequence of amino acids and the hydrogen and disulfide bonds in the chain determines each protein’s unique 3-dimensional (folded) shape and the protein’s specific biological function.
-Proteins are broadly classified as fibrous (structural) or globular (functional).

131
Q

Structural proteins:

A

Are generally stringy or fibrous and function to provide mechanical support for various parts of the body. Important structural proteins include keratins found in hair and nails, collagen (the most abundant body protein) is found in bone, cartilage, and tendons. Elastin is found in connective tissues such as tendons and ligaments.
–Elastin functions like it sounds. It is very important in the mechanical function of organs like the lungs

132
Q

Functional proteins

A

-Regulatory proteins function as hormones that regulate various body processes, control growth, and mediate responses of the nervous system. Examples include the 11-peptide neurotransmitter substance P, involved in the sensation of pain, insulin that regulates blood sugar level, and oxytocin that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth
-Catalytic proteins act as enzymes that speed up biochemical reactions such as synthesis, breakdown (including digestion), cellular reproduction, and energy production. Examples include salivary amylase, lactase, lipase, and the proteolytic enzyme trypsin
-Contractile proteins allow shortening of muscle fibers to allow movement. Examples include actin and myosin.
-Immunological proteins function as antibodies, The five major classes of antibodies are IgM, IgA, IgD, IgG, and IgE.
- Transport proteins carry vital substances throughout the body. One of the most important examples is hemoglobin, the major carrier of oxygen in the blood. Myoglobin is a protein that stores oxygen in the muscles

133
Q

Protein synthesis is controlled by genes, which are located on chromosome

A

The process is called gene expression.
*As a chain of amino acids is put together, it folds upon itself to create a complex three-dimensional structure.
*The shape of the folded structure determines the protein’s function in the body.
*Because the folding is determined by the precise sequence of amino acids, each different sequence results in a different protein.
*Some proteins (e.g. hemoglobin) contain several different folded chains.
*Instructions for synthesizing proteins are coded within the DNA that make up the genes
*Proteins have many vital functions:
*They are the building blocks for muscles, connective tissues, skin, and other structures.
*They also are needed to make enzymes.
*Enzymes are complex proteins that control and carry out nearly all chemical processes and reactions within the body.
*The body produces thousands of different enzymes.

134
Q

Protein and immune system function

A

The most important function of the immune system is its ability to recognize normal body calls and distinguish them from damaged cells and invading pathogens. This ability is called self /non-self-recognition. When self/non-self-recognition fails, the immune system begins to attack normal body cells and tissues causing autoimmune disorders
-The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is the genetic mechanism that allows self/non-self-recognition
-MHC protein synthesis is controlled by a cluster of genes found in every cell of most vertebrates
-The human MHC gene cluster is located on the short arm of chromosome 6, and contains 128 genes
-The location of these genes (often called loci or regions) allows them to be grouped into three classes: Class I, II and III.
-HLAs (human leukocyte antigen) define an individual human being’s tissue type.
*Tissue type is assessed when evaluating a donor for organ transplant
-When exogenous (foreign) HLAs are detected, the cells displaying them are attacked and destroyed.
*This is why the body rejects grafts and transplants from donors that do not have a closely matched tissue type
-

135
Q

Class I and II MHC proteins also perform the important function of antigen presentation

A

Class I MHC proteins are found on almost all cell types.
Surface Presentation is how the immune system finds out what is happening inside the cells even though it can only survey them from the outside.
Killer T-cells (which have receptors for the class I MHC proteins) constantly check the peptide antigens presented on the cell surface. This lets the immune system identify normal (self) antigens and differentiate them from foreign invaders.

136
Q

Class II MHC proteins are only found on immune system cells such as phagocytes
(cells that engulf and destroy foreign particles such as bacteria and viruses).

A

These immune system cells can present peptide antigens derived from the digested invaders.
*Helper T-cells (which have receptors for class II MHC proteins) identify the presented antigens.
The helper T-cell will only allow the phagocyte to survive if the presented antigen is recognized as foreign.
The purpose of this surveillance system is to stop the immune system running out of control and attacking the body’s own cells.

137
Q

Class III MHC proteins genes encode several components of the complement system

A

Complement proteins help to activate and maintain the inflammatory process of an immune response.
MHC III genes also code for inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor and other proteins used by the immune system
MHC III genes also code for inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor and other proteins used by the immune system

138
Q

Trypsin

A

is an important digestive enzyme that breaks down ingested protein into smaller peptides for the body’s use
-It is produced in the pancreas in an inactive form called trypsinogen.
-Trypsinogen is secreted into the small intestine (the duodenum) through the pancreatic duct where the enzyme enteropeptidase converts it to active trypsin.
-he body has trypsin inhibitors, especially alpha I anti-trypsin ( antitrypsin or A1AT) circulating in the serum to prevent active trypsin from self-digesting the body’s own tissues.
-People born with a hereditary inability to produce A1AT suffer breakdown of lung tissue and often develop COPD early in life.

139
Q

genetic control

A

DNA and RNA: The nucleic acids, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are huge organic polymers made up of smaller monomer units called nucleotides (the polymer is called a polynucleotide). The nucleic acids contain the entire blueprint for life.
-DNA bases are made of Thymine (T), Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), and Guanine1 (G).
-The DNA polymer has two major functions:
1.To make an exact copy of itself just before cell division.
2.To carry information (a code) for making proteins in the order of the bases along a strand
-The RNA polymer has a different function:
*While DNA stores the information for protein synthesis, RNA carries out the instructions
The RNA polymer is a long strand made of four repeating units:
−Adenosine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanosine2 (G) and Uridine (U).

140
Q

Chromosomes

A

Chromosomes are long strands of DNA that contain hundreds to thousands of genes.
*Every human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46chromosomes

141
Q

Genes

A

The human genome contains about 22,000 genes; about 40 of those genes are responsible for normal respiratory system development
Genes are short strands of DNA located on chromosomes
Genes contain the code used to synthesize a protein as well as other information.
Sequences of three gene bases (called codons) control protein synthesis by specifying the order in which the amino acids are joined together.
Each gene has a particular location (called the locus) on the chromosome.
The unique form of each single gene is called an allele.

Respiratory (5 decks)

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