Chapter 9: Biodiversity and Plant Adaptations

Question 1

Define Biodiversity.

Answer 1

Biodiversity is the number of species in a certain area, the distribution of species, the genetic variation within populations, or the role that species play within the ecosystem.

Question 2

Mountains contain compressed climatic zones, or ___, along vertical, elevational gradients.

Answer 2

Microclimates.

Question 3

Who was Alexander von Humboldt?

Answer 3

One of the first people to document these patterns of mountain diversity was the Prussian geographer and naturalist, Alexander von Humboldt. His 1807 Essay on the Geography of Plants was based on the then novel idea of studying the distribution of species along gradients of varying physical conditions. These patterns were famously depicted in his cross-section sketch of Chimborazo, a massive, 6310 m stratovolcano and the highest mountain in Ecuador.

Question 4

Humboldt: Between 1799 and 1804, travelled extensively in Latin America, (pic of Chimborazo), his quantitative work on botanical geography laid the foundation for the entire field of biogeography. Describe his cross-section.

Answer 4

His cross-section, pictorial representation and detailed descriptions of the cross-section was called “Ein Naturegemalde Der Anden” / “Picture of Nature in the Andes” provided detailed info about temp, altitude, humidity, and the animals and plants found at each elevation. Basis for comparison with other major peaks in the world.

Question 5

Speciation:

What is speciation?

Answer 5

The process that creates new species. Occurs when populations genetically diverge to a point when they are no longer able to interbreed.

Question 6

Speciation:
For speciation to happen, populations need to be isolated so that there is no movement of individuals from one place to another. What is allopatric speciation?

Answer 6

Geographic isolations.
Allopatric speciation is common in mountains because these rugged landscapes impose topographical barriers that isolate smaller populations.

Question 7

Speciation:

Give an example of allopatric speciation.

Answer 7

E.g. ridges and valleys of Andes in SA create physical barriers that both limit animal dispersal and create local variations in rainfall. Resulted in physical isolation of animal populations and variation in animal habitat productivity. Both factors contributed to the evolution of high species diversity. Diversity seen in genetic and morphological variation in Peruvian populations of the Tyrian Metaltail (hummingbird living in montane forests of elevations at 1700-3800 m). Geographic isolation rather than variation in climatic conditions explain most genetic variations in various subspecies.

Question 8

Speciation:

Give another example of allopatric speciation.

Answer 8

E.g. Speciation of bellflowers living in the NA mountains diverged with geographic isolation between multiple mountain refugia.
Bellflowers: climatic variability ass. With quaternary glacial cycles and the rugged topography of these mountain landscapes provided many opportunities for speciation. Factors contributing to the high diversity of bellflowers incl. combined effects of climate oscillations, rugged alpine habitats and variable floral morphology. Studies found that speciation over the past 1mys was ass. With geographical isolation between multiple mountain refugia in W N A.

Question 9

Speciation:

Define Refugia.

Answer 9

Places in the mountains that have maintained favourable conditions during periods of past environmental change, often ass. with periods of glaciation.

Question 10

Measuring biodiversity:

What is species richness measure?

Answer 10

The simplest way to measure biodiversity by counting the total number of species present.

Question 11

Measuring biodiversity:

What is a second index of biodiversity?

Answer 11

Evenness:
Measures how similar species are in their relative abundances.
E.g. large differences in the abundance of species , community has low evenness.

Question 12

Measuring biodiversity:

What is a third measure?

Answer 12

Species diversity, which accounts for both species richness and evenness.
Species diversity can provide insights into how ecosystems function in mtn. environments.

Question 13

Measuring biodiversity:

What is DNA barcoding?

Answer 13

A technique for characterizing species using a short DNA sequence. It also provides a measure of genetic diversity within populations and communities.
DNA Barcoding, Sarah Adamowicz, Geneticist at UofGuelph.

Question 14

Give an example of an endemic species.

Answer 14

E.g. Found only in the Rockies is the Banff Springs snail (Physella johnsoni). It is a small air-breathing freshwater snail in the family Physidae. The largest individuals are about 1 cm long, and they survive on a diet of algae, microbes and detritus. Unusual because they are adapted to thermal springs where water is low in O2 and high in hydrogen sulfide. Snail was first identified in 1926, in the nine sulphurous hot springs of Sulfur mountain in Banff. Range has shrunk to 5/9 hot springs.
Cave and Basin, Banff, Mark Taylor, Aquatic Ecologist with Parks Canada: Live in water 20 degrees warmer, Endangered, Wet seasons (spring) populations fall, dry seasons (summer, fall, winter) rises (explode from dozens to hundreds).

Question 15

Mountains are biodiversity hotspots:

What are hotspots of biodiversity?

Answer 15

Regions containing high concentrations of endemic species that are also facing threats of rapid species loss.

Question 16

Mountains are biodiversity hotspots:

More than 35 biodiversity hotspots have been identified around the world. ___ of them are located in mountains regions.

Answer 16

1/2

Question 17

Mountains are biodiversity hotspots:
Although hotspots represent just over 2% of the Earth’s land area, they’re home to about ___ of the world’s endemic species.

Answer 17

1/2

Question 18

Mountains are biodiversity hotspots:

Give an example of one of these hotspots.

Answer 18

The Andes region of SA, these natural alpine habitats are also among the most threatened area of the world.

Question 19

Mountains are biodiversity hotspots:

Explanations for this concentration of endemic species include…?

Answer 19

Past climate shifts and tectonic events, modern ecological interactions, and limited dispersal.
Andes: Historically, the uplands were isolated from lowlands by Andean uplifts which began 25-30 mya, created complex mosaic of high mountains and deep valleys. Ancient uplift and resulting isolation were important drivers in speciation.

Question 20

Mountains are biodiversity hotspots:
Two hypothesis that could explain these patterns of biodiversity ae the geographical area hypothesis and the productivity hypothesis. What is the geographical area hypothesis?

Answer 20

Larger areas can support more species. Decreasing species diversity at higher latitudes and elevations may just be a consequence of inherently smaller areas of habitat availability.

Question 21

Mountains are biodiversity hotspots:
Two hypothesis that could explain these patterns of biodiversity ae the geographical area hypothesis and the productivity hypothesis. What is the productivity hypothesis?

Answer 21

Proposes that higher primary productivity (forms the resource base of food webs), associated with higher temperatures in the tropics and at lower elevations, contributes to higher biodiversity.

Question 22

Mountains are biodiversity hotspots:
Habitat fragmentation, as a result of past environmental changes such as glaciation, can be particularly influential in determining …?

Answer 22

Patterns of mountain biodiversity.

Question 23

Professor Terry Callaghan from Tomsk State University in Russia and Sheffield University in UK has spent decades studying these patterns (Spoke to him visiting Altai mountains in Siberia):

Answer 23

Importance of N-S running corridors of distributions of plants, following movements of previous iceages. After little iceage and early cold periods, Nunatak (tops of mountains sticking out of ice sheiths), most famous is in SW Greenland, 100 km from any ice free area. There are plants growing. Will spread along rides connecting Nunataks as ice recedes. Can also be separated by distance and forests, mtns in those situations are resevoirs (refugia).

Question 24

___ ___ systems are more stable, or less susceptible to risk when subjected to change.

Answer 24

Species rich.

The diversity of vegetation in mountains is also crucial for slope stability.

Question 25

What is the diversity-stability hypothesis?

Answer 25

Based on the observation that species vary in their morphology and physiology, and that in a highly diverse system there will be some species that can compensate for the loss of others after disturbance.

Question 26

Define ecosystem services.

Answer 26

Defined in 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment as a way of quantifying the benefits people obtain from both natural and managed ecosystems.

Question 27

What are conifers?

Answer 27

A type of plant that reproduce from seeds in cones and can be easily recognized by their needle-like leaves.
E.g. White Spruce and White Bark Pine

Question 28

Needles allow coniferous trees to thrive in cold and dry conditions at high elevations because they have what 5 benefits?

Answer 28

1. a small surface area that sheds snow (Cone shape and flexibility of branches also helps to shed snow) and reduces evaporation
2. a waxy coating or cuticle that helps retain moisture and provides protection from UV radiation
3. narrower transport vessels, called tracheids, which decreases the likelihood that a gas bubble will develop in winter
4. extensive root systems that increases their capacity to obtain water and nutrients from the soil
5. can photosynthesize at relatively high rates even at low temps.

Question 29

Plants need to retain water in mountain env. b/c …?

Answer 29

Thin soils have poor capacity to retain moisture.

Question 30

Describe the process of photosynthesis.

Answer 30

Photosynthesis: light and H2O and CO2 to sugar and O2, sugar to Biomolecules that form Biomass (leaves, stems, roots, and reproductive structures).

Question 31

Conifers are evergreens, meaning…?

Answer 31

They retain leaves throughout the yr.

Question 32

Whitebark pine:

In Rockies, one ex of a fire adapted species is whitebark pine, Pinus albicaulis. Explain.

Answer 32

Whitebark pine is more resistant to low severity ground fires than other competing species, such as subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce.
Fire has historically played an integral role in providing suitable restoration habitat. The open areas produced by these fires attract seed producing species, such as Clark’s nutcracker.

Question 33

Whitebark pine:

Individual trees do not reach their full reproductive potential, or cone production, until they are …?

Answer 33

60 to 100 yrs old. Even 1000 yr old trees have been known to reproduce.

Question 34

Whitebark pine:

Whitebark pines are dependent on the Clark’s nutcracker for…?

Answer 34

Seed dispersal because the cones of the tree do not open on their own.

Question 35

Whitebark pine:

Describe some characteristics of the Whitebark Pine.

Answer 35

In LimberPine, growing at the highest treeline elevations in the rocky mountains: Canopy’s provide shade for winter snow and can prolong timing of snowmelt, regulating downstream flows.

Question 36

Whitebark pine:

Robert Sissions, vegetation and restoration ecologist for Parks Canada in watertons lake national park:

Answer 36

Ecology of white bark pine and limber pine trees and conservation efforts he leads in rocky mtn national parks: Healthy limber pine… 5 needles, pollen cones, female cones where seeds are produced (1 yr to grow to adult cone), seeds will open on own and fall out (40-60 seeds in cone), unlike white bark where they depend on birds to spread to unshaded fire destroyed areas.
Take trees (plus?) that show resistance and send to Montana to be grown, plant about 1000 in burn sites. Also send to national partners to study for resistance

Question 37

Whitebark pine:
Declining across its range, including in the Canadian mountain national parks. It was listed as endangered under the Species at Rist Act of 2012 because it is threatened by…?

Answer 37

Fire suppression, climate change, mountain pine beetle outbreaks and infections from the non-native white blister rust.
Considered a keystone species.

Question 38

A few high elevation conifer species, like the larch or tamarack, are not evergreens and shed their needles in the fall. Describe Larches.

Answer 38

• Larches have a broad canopy relative to cone-shaped evergreens, capture more solar radiation.
• They develop softer, more fragile needles that are a less costly investment than the hardy needles of evergreens, and they flower very early in spring and photosynthesize more efficiently than evergreens.
• Highly efficient at extracting nutrients from their needles back into their wood tissue before dropping their needles in fall.

Question 39

Above treeline, alpine plant communities consist of a variety of low-statured plants, including …?

Answer 39

Wildflowers, grasses, heaths, mosses, and succulents that have evolved a number of adaptations to persist and thrive in alpine habitats.

Question 40

Alpine plants stay warm using two pathways. They either increase the amount of heat that they absorb from the sun, called radiative heat gain, or they decrease the amount of heat that is lost from wind, called convective cooling. Plants do this using:

Answer 40

• dark colouring
• orienting their surfaces so they are perpendicular to the sun
• growing in sheltered microclimates
• having a hairy surface, also called pubescence, that traps a thin layer of air (boundary layer) above the surface
• growing close to the ground to avoid wind and for shelter under the snow: this subnivian space provides a protective blanket in winter.

Question 41

Cushions and Rosettes:

What are cushions?

Answer 41

Tightly packed clusters of many smaller stems.
Compact growth form, increases likelihood of entirely being covered by snow in winter, protective blanket and source of moisture.
The microclimate of cushion is also good for those that take cover, e.g. other plants, micro-organisms, spiders, and insects. Dead plant matter within cushion also promotes nutrients recycling and encourages further plant growth.

Question 42

Cushions and Rosettes:
The cushion growth form is a highly effective way to stay warm, as it both increases radiative heat gains and restricts air movement through the low canopy. Temperatures in a cushions can be up to ___ warmer than the surrounding air temp.

Answer 42

15 degrees.

Question 43

Cushions and Rosettes:

The rosette growth form is also common in alpine environments. Describe.

Answer 43

Individuals have a circular, basal arrangement of leaves. The erect, flowering stems of the rosette growth form are more exposed, but this is also an adaptation for seed dispersal and attracting pollinators.

Question 44

Cushions and Rosettes:

There are many variations of the rosette growth strategies. Give an example.

Answer 44

E.g. Giant rosette species in the Venezuelan Andes have marcescent leaves, that senesce but do not fall of the plant, providing protection from the cold.
Espeletia Schultzii: trunk is thick with succulent hairy leaves arranged in dense spiral pattern. This species increase stem height with elevation.

Question 45

What are ecosystem engineer?

Answer 45

Organisms that modulate the availability of resources to other species through habitat modification.

Question 46

When water freezes it expands, and plant cells can be damaged or burst. What are the 3 physiological or functional adaptations that alpine plants have developed to prevent their tissues from freezing?

Answer 46

1. Freezing-point depression (allows plants to increase concentration of soluble sugars in their tissues in order to reduce the temp at which they will freeze)
2. Supercooling (water inside the plants can cool below its freezing point of 0 degrees)
3. Dehydration (plants move water to the otherwise empty spaces outside of their cells)

Question 47

Transpiration:

Plants lose water through a process called transpiration. Transpiration involves…?

Answer 47

Both water transport within a plant and the loss of water from the plant to the atmosphere, through evaporation.

Question 48

Transpiration:

Carbon dioxide diffuses into leaves as water diffuses out, primarily through specialized leaf pores, called ___.

Answer 48

Stromata.

Question 49

Transpiration:
Transpiration increases at high elevation, making it challenging for plants to retain moisture. What can reduce transpiration rates?

Answer 49

Hairy, fuzzy, and succulent leaves help plants cope with dry and windy conditions.
Boundary layers can lessen the water-potential gradient between the inside and outside of the plant, which reduces transpiration.
Also, alpine plants tend to have greater control of their stomatal apertures than do other plants in less extreme environments and may reduce water loss by closing stromata.

Question 50

Transpiration:

Like needles on coniferous trees, alpine plant leaves tend to have cuticles that …?

Answer 50

Seal in moisture.

Question 51

Many alpine plants have deep root systems. What are the advantages?

Answer 51

• Deep taproot systems are an adaptation to the thin soils at high elevation, and may stabilize the plants in places where soil is constantly on the move. (Taproot, large mean root with smaller roots branching off side. Exploit deeper soil moisture and reach more nutrients. Anchors.)
• Allocating resources into root systems and other below-ground storage structures is another adaptation for variable conditions and short growing seasons (High root-to-shoot ratio enables storage of water and nutrients, allows plants to grow immediately when temps increase in Spring. E.g. Pasqeflowers, Gentians, Oxytropes)

Question 52

Lichens:

What are they?

Answer 52

• Desiccation tolerant non-flowering plants that thrive in extreme alpine environments, where they may be found on nearly all rock surfaces.
• Technically not plants, but symbiosis between an algal or bacterial species and a fungus.

Question 53

Lichens:

Describe the mutualistic association.

Answer 53

The alga or bacterium photosynthesizes to produce food energy that it shares with the fungus, while the fungus provides shelter.

Question 54

Lichens:

What are some traits?

Answer 54

-Lichens do not have a root system, instead collecting nutrients and water from the atmosphere. Also attain soluble nutrients from surface they live on by releasing unique biochemical enzymes that decompose their substrate even if it’s a rock.
Can tolerate severe desiccation, or dehydration, by entering dormancy. When wetter conditions return, brittle lichens absorb water to become soft and fleshy. Fungal layers of lichen can soak up more water than their own weight.
-Can photosynthesise at any temp above 0

Question 55

How long can cushions live?

Answer 55

For 100s of yrs.

Question 56

Reproduction:
Perennials, plants that persist for more than 2 yrs, are ___ adapted to alpine environments than annuals, which complete their entire life cycle in one yr and then die.

Answer 56

Better.

Question 57

Reproduction:
Many alpine plants reproduce by ___ ___, a process by which new plants grow from parts of a parent plant. The advantage of this strategy is that a plant can survive and reproduce even if harsh conditions prevent sexual reproduction.

Answer 57

Vegetative reproduction.
In Alpine plants, asexual reproduction is commonly achieved using Rhizomes (modified underground stems that extend away from the plant and grow new shoots).

Question 58

Reproduction:

Sexual reproduction is challenging in alpine environments because…?

Answer 58

The density and diversity of pollinators is low, and the viability of seeds is strongly influenced by environmental conditions.

Question 59

Pollination:
Because of the short growing season at high elevations, most alpine flowering plants bloom within a few weeks following the snow melt. This allows them more time to attract pollinators. Adaptations to attract these pollinators include…?

Answer 59

Darker flowers and flowers that are cup-shaped, which focuses solar radiation towards the centre of the flower, increasing the temperature inside the flower relative to the outside air. Insects sometimes seek refuge in the warmth of flowers, increasing opportunity for pollination.

Question 60

Pollination:

Describe the mutualistic relationship between plants and pollinators.

Answer 60

Plants benefit pollinators by providing nectar as food and in turn, pollinators transfer pollen between plants to facilitate their reproduction.

Question 61

Pollination:
Mountain Avens (Drius Octapatella) are heliotropic. What does this mean?

Answer 61

Following the sun as it moves across the sky. Petals reflect sun onto pistols inside flower, warming them by up to 7 degrees.

Question 62

Pollination:
Warming also maintains stable temp in flowers, can accelerate development of the sexually reproductive organs and facilitate fertilization and seed development. Give an example.

Answer 62

E.g. solar tracking enhances pollen germination by up to 44% in the snow buttercup (renunculous sedonius) a common alpine species in the central Rockies.

Question 63

Pollination:
Some plants have exclusive relationships with a specific pollinator due to specialized adaptations, while other plants are generalists, and attractive to a wide range of pollinators. What is co-evolution?

Answer 63

Co-evolution in which 2 or more species reciprocally effect each others evolution.

Question 64

Pollinators:

What are the most important pollinators in mountain ecosystems?

Answer 64

Bumblebees (specialists, visit plants with adaptations that match their morphology) and flies (generalists).

Question 65

Pollinators:
Specialists plants have adopted a strategy that attracts few, but high quality pollinators. The lower energy requirements of generalist pollinators, like flies, mean that they can visit flowers less frequently, potentially reducing the successful transfer of pollen. Give an example of specialization.

Answer 65

E.g. Some bee pollinated flowers have nectar down tube.
No pt for long tongue and such on generalist as generalist have characteristics making it easily accessible to as many as possible.

Question 66

Pollinators:

Alpine pollination strategies, Jessamyn Manson, UofA Ecologist:

Answer 66

• nectar guides only seen under UV
• Bees see blue, green, violet, and yellow. Particularly like blue and yellow.
• Flies have limited colour vision and are attracted to white
• Birds can see red and have preference
• Moths are nocturnal pollinators, almost exclusively white, find using scent
• Bees attracted to sweet.
• Flies attracted to rotting meat.
• Birds have poor sense of smell.
• Larger bees, such as bumblebees are more common in alpine due to temps

Question 67

Tech Tip (Laura Redmond):
Camping Gear.

Answer 67

• Dehydration, how tired you are, elevation, and how much you’ve been eating all contribute to how hot you are when you sleep
• High-fill ratio down is the most efficient option, but requires care and attention to keep dry while synthetic still insulates while damp
• Inflatable pad with thin closed-cell foam pad (makes great blister pads and useful for splint)

Question 68

Reading:
Chapter 1 (Mountain biodiversity – a global heritage) in Mountain Biodiversity and Global change.

Answer 68

-High biodiversity in high ecosystems Why are mountain biota so diverse? Patterns of global mountain biodiversity What is a mountain? How big is the mountain area globally?

-Case Studies
12 GMBA – the Global Mountain Biodiversity Assessment of DIVERSITAS
13 The Mountain Biodiversity Portal: a gateway to biodiversity data in mountains
14 Amphibians as indicators of change in Ethiopian highlands
15 Iranian mountains: a great place to see plants you never have seen before

Refer to reading for facts and mountains.