Chapter 9 Flashcards
Development
- is a series of changes (for the better or for the worse)
Change involves tradeoffs in development True or False?
true
What is the difference growing old? And growing up
Growing old is biological
Growing up is developing something like maturity,emotional intelligence, capability to control emotion, responsibility more rational thinking
Domains of development
- intelligence
- memory
- mental (Piaget theory of cognitive development)
- psychosocial (Erickson psychosocial stages)
Chronological age
- the number of months or years since an individual’s birth
Developmental age and an example
- the chronological age at which most children show a particular level of physical or mental development
- example walking without assistance
Normative investigations
- research efforts designed to describe what is characteristic of a specific age or developmental stage
What are the two types of research design
- Longitudinal design; the same participants are observed repeatedly, sometimes over many years
- Cross sectional design; groups of participants of different chronological ages are observed and compared at a given time
What type of study is tracking the same individual over time
- longitudinal design
What type of research design is comparing babies of different ages
Cross sectional design
What are the advantages of longitudinal design
- researchers can identify individual differences like the developmental age for walking is not the same across individuals
- researchers can examine relationships between early and later events and behaviours
- can test direction of causation
What are the disadvantages of longitudinal design and what are the ways that data can be contaminated
- time consuming and costly
- data are easily lost (high drop out rate), and have to drop the data set entirely
- data might be contaminated by
1. Biased sampling
2. Practice effects
3. Cohort effects
Cohort
A group of people who develop in the same time period and are influenced by particular cultural and historical conditions.
Differences in characteristics, behaviours or outcomes among people of different age groups or geographic location which are effects of cultural historical change on the accuracy of findings where the results based on one cohort may not apply to another cohort refers to what effect
Cohort effect
Advantages of cross sectional design
- takes less time to complete
- less costly
- not subject to practice effects ( results are not due to repeating a task various times)
Disadvantages associated with cross sectional design
- cannot tell is an early event has an impact on a later event ( the intelligence between age groups is it really because of age or was the adult significantly smarter as a child then then child they are comparing them to)
- cohort effects (especially comparing two cohorts) example comparing teenagers with seniors and tech skills its hard to tell differences if they are due to aging or just difference life experiences aka teenagers growing up with cellphones)
Seen in the example of comparing the iq of father and sons what is an observation made caused by the cohort effect
- accessibility and quality of education account for the difference in iq between the two generations
Fluid Intelligence (Problem-Solving Ability):
• Peaks in early adulthood.
• Declines starting in middle adulthood.
• Involves reasoning, processing speed, and working memory.
Crystallized Intelligence (Accumulated Knowledge):
• Continues to increase through middle adulthood.
• Stays stable or slightly declines in late adulthood.
• Includes vocabulary, facts, and general knowledge.
Age-Related Intellectual Changes:
- Performance Declines:
• Speed of Processing, Working Memory, and Long-Term Memory decrease with age.- Preserved Abilities:
• World Knowledge (e.g., vocabulary) remains stable or improves with age.
- Preserved Abilities:
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal: Understanding Age-Related Changes in Intelligence
- Cross-Sectional Design:
• Suggests intellectual decline starts early in life.
• Affected by cohort effects (differences in experiences across generations).- Longitudinal Design:
• Shows stability or improvement in intellectual abilities until middle adulthood.
• Better for tracking individual changes over time.
- Longitudinal Design:
True or false fluid intelligence shows greater decline with age than crystallized intelligence
True
What has a decrease in fluidity been attributed to
General slowing down of processing speed
Due to aging older adult’s performance on —— is greatly impaired
- intellectual tasks that require many mental processes to occur in small amounts of time
What view does the use it or lose it philosophy give us
- optimistic view
Older adults whose everyday lives had the highest amount of social, physical and intellectual activities showed….
The fastest processing speed on cognitive tasks
“Use It or Lose It” (Correlational Study) key idea, reminder and possible explanations for the observation
- Key Idea:
• “Use it or lose it” refers to the idea that if you don’t engage in mental activities, your abilities might decline.- Important Reminder:
• Correlation is NOT causation: Just because two things are related (e.g., not using mental skills and losing them) doesn’t mean one causes the other. Linked not cause - Possible Explanations for the Observation:
• Not using it first, then losing it: If you don’t practice mental activities, your skills might decline.
• Losing it first, then not using it: If your skills naturally decline (e.g., aging), you may stop engaging in mental activities.
- Important Reminder:
This study emphasizes that further research is needed to determine the true relationship.
What cross sectional study was associated with the use it or lose it and what were the results and an explanation of the results
- Senior professors, younger professors and older adults listening to brief stories and being asked to recall information from the stories
- results senior professors maintained same level of performance as younger professors, younger professors had a high level of performance and older adults showed low levels of performance and age related impairments
- professors have high level of mental activity due to their occupation protecting them from losses due to aging. Individuals who have a high level of mental activity become professors not everyone has that level of activity and the older adults could never have had the skill in the first place
True or false due to the use it or lose it theory, we cannot tell whether disuse ( not using mental abilities) or decay (natural decline of mental abilities) is the true cause of age related cognitive impairment
True
People choose to believe that —- is the cause of impairment because this is more optimistic and gives us a sense of control over aging
Disuse
People experience ——— with advancing age even when they are highly educated and have good intellectual skills
- memory deficits
Aging does not seem to affect
- Memory of general knowledge (semantic memory) memory acquired long ago
- Memory of personal events (episodic memory) that occurred long ago
Is free recall affected by aging how about recognition
- yes
- recognition is unaffected by age
What are examples of memory deficits
- transience
- absent-mindedness
- misattribution
- suggestibility
What is transience
- tendency to lose access to information across time
Absent-mindedness
- failure to remember information because of insufficient attention
Misattribution
- remembering a fact correctly but attributing it to an incorrect source or context example psych and socio textbook
Suggestibility
- the tendency to incorporate information provided by others into your own recollection and memory representation (augmentation of your own memories)
True or false memory deficits occur more frequently in older individuals than in younger
True
What does this mean and is it true “Mechanisms that underlie memory impairment in older adults are unknown”
We don’t know why memory gets worse as people age. And yes it is true
What are possible explanations to why memory declines with age
- lack of organization in older adults
- reduced ability to pay attention in older adults
- neurobiological changes in the brain
What are some neurobiological changes associates with Alzheimer’s
- cerebral cortex; responsible for language and information processing shrives up, damaging areas involved in thinking, planning and remembering
- hippocampus; critical for the formation of new memories, shrinks
- ventricles filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) grow larger, it means the brain is shrinking or losing tissue. This can be bad because it reduces the brain’s ability to function properly, leading to problems like memory loss, difficulty thinking, or other neurological issues.
Infantile amnesia
- inability to remember events and experiences that occurred during the first 2-3 years of life
True or false “some psychologists believe that children begin to retain explicit memories after developing the ability to create autobiographical memories based on personal experience”
True
True or false “other psychologists suggest that childhood memories do not develop with language acquisition”
False they do
Synaptic pruning
The physiological process of preserving synaptic connections that are used and eliminating those that are not used
True or false synapses decrease after age of 2
True
Synaptogenesis
- during infancy the brain experiences a large amount of growth and there is an explosion of synapse formation between neurons during early brain development
The rapid period of synaptogenesis plays a vital role in …. And what age does the number of synapses hit its peak level and after this age what occurs
- Learning, memory formation and adaptation early in life
- 2-3 years of age
- synaptic pruning
Why is synaptic pruning valuable in the developing brain
- eliminates unused synaptic connections which allows for adaptation to the developmental environment
What factors shape development
- prenatal enviornment
- experiences such as stress, neglect and exposure to violence
- poverty
How do children learn about the world
- perception, smelling, hearing, tasting
- responding to touch
Developmental psych concerns itself with what —- and what ———
- changes and remains stable across a life span
True or false nutrition affects aspects of brain development (myelination), exposure to teratogens during prenatal development, teratogens are agents that harm the embryos, this includes drugs, bacteria and viruses as well as chemicals such as caffeine, alcohol and certain prescription drugs may cause disorders, results maybe obvious or may reappear later in life, alcohol is the most common teratogen
True
How does dynamic system theories illuminate the ways biology and environment work together to shape development
- As you go through life, the way you act and behave changes because of a mix of three things:
Your biology (your brain, genes, and body)
Your culture (the beliefs and traditions around you)
Your environment (the people, places, and experiences you encounter)
All these things constantly interact, shaping how you grow and act over time.
What are the key research findings on infant learning and infant memory
- development of memory helps children learns about the world around them and children use what they already know to process new information, infants learn about their world through sensimotor exploration
Specific areas within the brain mature and become functional and regions of the brain learn to communicate with each other through synaptic connections
True
Dynamic systems theory
• the view that development is a self organizing process in which new forms of behaviour emerge through consistent interactions between a person and culture and environmental contexts
The key idea an example and a takeaway from the dynamic systems theory
- Key Idea:
• Development happens through active exploration and feedback from the environment.- Example:
• A baby on a mat wants a toy 10 feet away.
• Since the baby can’t crawl, she rolls to reach it, learning from feedback as she interacts with her surroundings. - Takeaway:
• New behaviors and skills emerge from a mix of:
• The child’s motivation.
• Personality.
• Environmental cues and feedback.
- Example:
In short, development is a dynamic process shaped by the child’s actions and environment working together.
Physical Developmental Milestones, Happen in a predictable order but can vary in timing across cultures.
Part of a dynamic system, shaped by: Biology (natural growth). Environmental feedback (learning from surroundings). Cultural interactions (influences from traditions and norms). True or false
True
Habituation technique
- a method to study how babies recognize categories by getting used to similar object and stare longer when shown something new
Attachment
Attachment = strong, lasting emotional bond.
Innate & Adaptive – Humans naturally bond for survival.
Survival Benefit – Bonds offer protection and increase survival chances.
Infant Behaviours – Babies instinctively seek attention from adults.
Dynamic Relationship – Helps both infant (survival) & caregiver (investment).
Early Influence – First relationships shape future development.
What happens when the attachment figure of a secure child leaves
• a secure child is distressed but quickly comforted when the attachment figure returns
What happens when the attachment figure in an insecure/avoidant child leaves
• a insecure/ avoidant child is not distressed but avoids the attachment figure when they return
What happens when the attachment figure of an insecure/ambivalent child leaves
• an insecure/ambivalent child is inconsolably upset but will seek and reject the caring contact when the attachment figure returns
How Bowlbys attachment theory how is attachment adaptive
• attachment motivates infants and caregivers to stay near each other, increasing the security that infants need to survive and thrive
Piaget’s Insights into Mental Development
- Key Idea:
• Piaget studied how children think differently from adults.
• He focused on the qualitative changes in thinking as children grow.- Piaget’s View:
• Intellectual development is about moving from:
• Immediate, concrete thinking (present-focused).
• To symbolic and abstract thinking (future-oriented). - Takeaway:
• Piaget showed that children’s thinking evolves in stages and is not just a smaller version of adult thinking.
- Piaget’s View:
Piagets introduced the idea of ——
- cognitive development and that children go through 4 stages of development that a reflect different ways of thinking about the world
What are the four stages of cognitive development
- Sensorimotor (0-2 years old)
- Preoperational (2-7 years old)
- Concrete operations (7-11 years old)
- Formal operations (11 years old and on)
Sensorimotor stage
• It focuses on how infants learn about the world through senses and motor actions.
Early Stage (Birth to ~1 Year):
1. Characteristics:
• Infants rely on reflexes and sensory impressions.
• They lack object permanence (the understanding that objects exist even when out of sight).
• Example: A baby may follow an object with their eyes but lose interest when it disappears, as if it no longer exists.
2. Behavior:
• Actions are uncoordinated (e.g., grasping and sucking without intention).
- the coordination of sensory impressions not yet developed ( newborn cannot yet connect and make sense of information they are receiving)
• No distinction between stable objects and fleeting events.
3. Cognitive Limitation:
• Infants do not yet have short-term memory to recall missing objects.
Emerging Abilities (Around 1-2 Years):
1. Object Permanence:
• Infants begin to understand that objects exist and act independently of their actions.
• Example: A child searches for a hidden toy, showing they remember it exists.
2. Intentional Actions:
• Behavior becomes deliberate as infants use feedback to adjust their actions (e.g., rolling to reach a toy).
3. Memory Development:
• The ability to search for hidden objects suggests the emergence of long-term memory.
Takeaway:
• The sensorimotor stage is a critical period for developing:
• Object permanence.
• Intentional, purposeful behavior.
• Coordination of sensory and motor skills.
• It lays the foundation for more complex thought in later stages.
True or false in the sensorimotor stage in the infant world there are neither real objects nor any concept of self. There is nothing but a succession of transient unconnected sensory impressions and motor reactions
True
In the pre-operational stage, characteristics of this stage are presented in the form of —— and what does this mean
Deficiency
The children lacks the ability to take the perspective of another person (egocentrism) and the concept of conservation ( quantity of a substance is conserved despite changes in its shape
True or false in the pre operational stage, children think symbolically about objects but they reason based on intuition and superficial appearance rather than logic
True
What ages are children in the pre operational stage
Ages 2-7
What cognitive limitation is associated with the preoperational stage and explain
Egocentrism; the tendency for pre-operational thinkers to view the world through their own experiences, they can understand how others deal and have the capacity to care however they engage in thought processes that revolve around their own perspectives
What is an example of egocentrism in the pre-operational stage
- child hides behind tree with eyes closed so she believes that since she cannot see other people, other people cannot see her
What is another example of egocentrism in the pre operational stage and explain
- person1 “ do you have a brother”
- person 2 “yes”
- person 1 “what’s his name”
- person 2 “ Jim”
- person 1 “does Jim have a brother”
- person 2 “no”
- This example demonstrates egocentrism in the preoperational stage because the child cannot take another person’s perspective.
Here’s how:
• When asked, “Does Jim have a brother?” the child says “No”, even though they just acknowledged they are Jim’s sibling.
• The child struggles to understand that the relationship goes both ways (they are Jim’s sibling, so Jim must also be theirs).
Is a child believing that the sun follows them around during the day and example of egocentrism in the pre operational stage and why
Yes it is This example shows egocentrism in the preoperational stage because the child believes that the sun’s movements are centered around their own actions. They see the world as revolving around them and that the sun does not operate independently of them .
Explain the Three-Mountain Experiment and Egocentrism
- What Happened in the Experiment:
• The child viewed a model of three mountains.
• They were asked to describe what they saw and then describe what the teddy bear could see.- Findings:
• Before age 4: Children didn’t understand the question.
• Ages 4-7: Children always described what they saw, not what the teddy bear could see. - Connection to Egocentrism:
• This shows egocentrism because the child assumes everyone sees the world exactly as they do.
• They can’t imagine the teddy bear’s perspective, which reflects the preoperational stage (ages 2-7), where thinking is centered on their own viewpoint.
- Findings:
What are the findings from the conservation test showing egocentrism in the pre operational stage
- four or five year olds are too impressed by the visible reality
- their attention is drawn toward the more salient dimension os a geometric shape ( the height of a narrow cylinder)
- they do not realize that there is an underlying reality ( the quantity) that remains constant throughout
What age are children in the concrete operations stage
They are between the ages 7-12
In the concrete operations stage children can…
- children can do what they failed to do in the pre operational stage
- see from others perspective whe the subjects of observation are concrete
- tell that a given quantity remains the same in matter how its shape changes
Within the concrete operations stage children are capable of —- —— and what is an example of this
Mental operations which are actions performed in the mind that give rise to logical thinking
- an example is they can mentally pour the liquid back and forth between containers of different shapes and reason that a change in shape does not mean a change in quantity
True or false concrete operations allow children to replace physical action with mental action
True
A concrete operational child cannot think logically and is easily fooled by appearances true or false
False they can think logically
The ability to understand that an action is reversible enables children to —-
Begin to understand concepts such as the conservation of energy and they can reason logically and understand with more depth
The formal operational stage os the — stage of cognitive growth
Final
What are the features in the formal operations stage able to do-
- able to think in abstract terms
- able to ponder deep questions of truth, justice and existence
What ages are associated with the formal operational stage
Age 12 to adulthood
Formal operations involve —- and is characterized by the ability to —-
Critical thinking; using information to systematically find answers to problems and is characterized by the ability to form a hypothesis about something and test the hypothesis through deductive logic
What is an example of deductive reasoning found in the formal operations stage
- if a is taller than b, b is taller than c then a is taller than c
Within the formal operations stage can the individuals see reality from multiple vantage points when the subject of observation is abstract and what does this question entail?
Yes
In the formal operations stage, can people understand different perspectives about something that is not physical or visible?
What is an example of an individual within the formal operations stage seeing things in different perspective
- when judging the seriousness of a crime children who have formal operations investigate the covert intention of the perpetrator not just the overt acts of crime (intentions behind the crime and not just he criminal act itself)
Within Piagets experiment would kids without formal operations think John ( falling and accidentally smashing 15 cups) or Frank ( broke one cup while trying to steal jam) is naughtier? And what about kids with formal operations how do they think?
- judged John to be naughtier and deserved harsher punishment since he broke 15 cups
- kids with formal operations were more likely to think that frank was naughtier because his motives were bad
True or false children understand object permanence at age 2
True
Within concrete operations individuals can understand conservation True or False
True
What does each stage of Psychosocial Development represent (Erik Erikson), what are the key stages within
• Each stage represents a key conflict that individuals must resolve to grow emotionally and socially.
• Complexity and emotional intelligence increase as people progress through stages.
- Key Stages:
• Infant: Trust vs. Mistrust
• Learning to trust caregivers and the world.
• Toddler: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
• Developing independence and confidence.
• Preschooler: Initiative vs. Guilt
• Taking initiative and trying new things.
• Grade-schooler: Industry vs. Inferiority
• Building skills and feeling competent.
• Teenager: Identity vs. Role Confusion
• Developing a sense of self and personal identity.
• Young Adult: Intimacy vs. Isolation
• Forming deep, meaningful relationships.
• Middle-age Adult: Generativity vs. Stagnation
• Contributing to society (e.g., through work or raising a family).
• Key Point: Addiction or lack of responsibility can hinder progress here.
• Older Adult: Integrity vs. Despair
• Reflecting on life with either fulfillment or regret.
What is the takeaway from the stages of psychosocial development
Takeaway: Each stage shapes emotional growth and prepares individuals for the next step in life. Success at one stage leads to healthier development at the next.
True or false generality doesn’t develop until later when you direct your resources outward and what is an example of generativity
True
An example is when you become a manager, contribute to society, start a family etc
I order to reach the stage of generativity
Education is crucial as well as trauma and increase in responsibility
Is Erikson’s model of psychosocial development linear, or can individuals move back and forth between stages?
Answer: Erikson’s model is not strictly linear. Individuals typically follow the stages in order but can revisit earlier stages if unresolved conflicts arise. With personal growth or support, they can resolve these conflicts and progress again.
Challenges to Piaget’s Theory
- Ignores Individual & Cultural Differences – Doesn’t account for different learning styles across people and cultures.
- Stages Aren’t Fixed – Kids switch between stages depending on task difficulty.
- Brain Development Varies – Different brain areas control different skills, so learning isn’t always step-by-step.
- Not All Adults Reach Formal Thinking – Many still use concrete thinking instead of abstract reasoning.
- Formal Thinking Must Be Taught – It doesn’t just appear naturally.
- Underestimates Skill Development – Math and physics abilities appear earlier than Piaget suggested.
- Development is Continuous – Learning happens gradually, not in clear-cut stages (e.g., M&Ms experiment on spatial skills).
At what age does separation anxiety typically begin, and how does it relate to the stage of Trust vs. Mistrust?
Answer: Separation anxiety typically begins around 8-12 months. It reflects the emotional attachment between a child and their caregiver. During the Trust vs. Mistrust stage, this attachment is crucial for the child to develop a sense of security. Separation anxiety **peaks near the end of the first year ** as the child grows more aware of their dependence on the caregiver.
Cue Card: Infant Reactions to Separation; key trends, concepts and takeaways
Key Trends:
1. Any Negative Reaction: Increases steadily from 5 to 10 months, peaking at 10 months.
2. Wariness: Gradual rise with age, moderate by 10 months.
3. Extreme Distress: Minimal at 5 months, sharp increase after 8 months.
Concepts:
• Attachment Development: Stronger bonds lead to separation anxiety and stranger wariness.
• Emotional Growth: Older infants show increased sensitivity to caregiver absence.
Takeaway:
Caregivers should support infants’ emotional needs as awareness and attachment develop.
What is a widely used research procedure to access attachment and separation anxiety and what is it characterized by
- strange situation test developed by Mary Ainsworth
- the child is brought into an unfamiliar room filled with toys and the mother is present after a few minutes a stranger walks in and talks to the mother and later approaching the child
- the mother lastly exits the room and after brief separation there is a reunion with mother and child and stranger leaves and the child’s behaviours at separation and reunion is recorded
The strange situation test results categorized children’s behaviour into three types what are these types
- Secure attachment
- Insecure attachment; avoidant
- Insecure attachment; ambivalent/ resistant
What happens when the attachment figure of a secure child leaves
What percentage of children display this attachment style
• a secure child is distressed but quickly comforted when the attachment figure returns
- 70% of children display this style
What happens when the attachment figure in an insecure/avoidant child leaves
What percentage of children exhibit this style
• a insecure/ avoidant child is not distressed but aloof and ignores/avoids the attachment figure when they return
- 20%
What happens when the attachment figure of an insecure/ambivalent child leaves
- what percent of children display this attachment style
• an insecure/ambivalent child is inconsolably upset but will seek and reject the caring contact when the attachment figure returns, show resistance and anger
- about 10% of children display this attachment style
Cue Card 1: Secure Attachment, what is the caregivers behaviours and the child’s behaviour
• Caregiver Behaviours:
• Reacts quickly and positively to child’s needs.
• Responsive and supportive.
- Child Behaviours:
• Distressed when caregiver leaves.
• Happy when caregiver returns.
• Seeks comfort from caregiver when scared or sad.
Cue Card 2: Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
what is the caregivers behaviours and the child’s behaviours
• Caregiver Behaviours:
• Unresponsive, uncaring, dismissive.
- Child Behaviours:
• No distress when caregiver leaves.
• Does not acknowledge caregiver’s return.
• Avoids seeking or making contact with caregiver
Cue Card 3: Insecure-Ambivalent Attachment
What is the caregivers and child behaviours
• Caregiver Behaviours:
• Inconsistent in responses to child’s needs.
• Child Behaviours: • Distressed when caregiver leaves. • Not comforted by caregiver’s return.
Cue Card 4: Insecure-Disorganized Attachment
What is the caregivers and child behaviours
• Caregiver Behaviours:
• Abusive or neglectful.
• Responds to child in frightening ways.
• Child Behaviours:
• No clear attachment behaviours.
• Appears dazed, confused, or apprehensive in caregiver’s presence.
Avoidant Attachment, in adults vs children
• As Children:
1. May avoid parents.
2. Does not seek comfort or contact with parents.
3. Shows little or no preference between parent and stranger.
• As Adults:
1. May have issues with intimacy.
2. Invests little emotion in relationships.
3. Reluctant to share thoughts or feelings with others.
Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment in children vs adults
• As Children:
1. Wary of strangers.
2. Greatly distressed when the parent leaves.
3. Not comforted by the parent’s return.
- As Adults:
1. Reluctant to get close to others.
2. Worries their partner doesn’t love them.
3. Becomes very upset when a relationship ends.
Adult Attachment Styles Overview
- Secure:
• Low anxiety, low avoidance.
• Higher self-esteem, sociability, and comfort with intimacy.
• Positive view of self and others. - Preoccupied:
• High anxiety, low avoidance.
• Preoccupied with relationships, seeks intimacy but fears rejection. - Dismissive:
• Low anxiety, high avoidance.
• Prioritizes independence, avoids emotional closeness. - Fearful:
• High anxiety, high avoidance.
• Fearful of intimacy and highly distrustful of others.
Relationships and Attachment Styles
• Secure:
• Comfortable with intimacy and autonomy.
• No fear of closeness.
• Preoccupied: • Seeks emotional intimacy but fears rejection. • Struggles with separations. • Dismissive: • Avoids closeness, prioritizes independence. • Fear of intimacy. • Fearful Avoidant: • Desires closeness but distrusts others. • Fears both intimacy and autonomy.
True or false there is a positive correlation between the parent infant attachment style and the later relationship style developed in adulthood
True
Adults with an avoidant relationship style tend to have
- parents with unhappy marriages
- aloof and distant family members
Adults with an avoidant relationship did not feel much …. Either toward or from their parents and is the direction of causation unknown and what does this mean
- did not feel much warmth or trust
- yes, this means “are these people born with an avoidant personality and thus they avoid everybody or do they form an avoidant personality because they were kept away first
Adolescence - Identity vs. Role Confusion
• Key Concepts:
1. Adolescents explore different roles and identities.
2. Questions:
• “Who am I?”
• “What group do I fit in with?”
3. Failure to establish a clear identity can lead to an identity crisis.
• Takeaway: Adolescence is a critical time for self-discovery and finding one’s place in society.
Marcia’s Identity Status Model Overview
• Exploration: Seeking and considering options for identity.
• Commitment: Making decisions about identity.
Cue Card 2: Identity Status Categories
- Identity Achievement:
• High exploration and commitment.
• “I thought about it and now know what I should do with my life.” - Moratorium:
• High exploration, low commitment.
• “I’m thinking about what I should do.” - Foreclosure:
• Low exploration, high commitment.
• “I’ve made a choice without thinking.” - Identity Diffusion:
• Low exploration and commitment.
• “I don’t know or care what I’m supposed to do with my life.”
Marcia’s Identity Status Model explains how people figure out who they are and what they want to do in life by looking at two things: what are these two things
- Exploration: Are you thinking about your options?
• Example: “What job should I have?” or “What values do I believe in?” - Commitment: Have you made a decision?
• Example: “This is my career path,” or “This is what I stand for.”
Why does Marcia’s identity status model matter and why should i care
• It helps understand where you are in figuring out your identity:
• Achievement: You explored and decided—you’re confident in your identity.
• Moratorium: You’re exploring but haven’t decided yet—you’re still figuring things out.
• Foreclosure: You decided without exploring—maybe you just went with what others told you.
• Diffusion: You haven’t explored or decided—you’re not thinking about it much.
• It’s about personal growth. Knowing your status helps you reflect on your life choices and where you might need to focus.
• It’s especially important during teenage years or major life transitions when you’re trying to answer the big question: “Who am I?”
Is identity foreclosure when a person neither explores not makes commitments
No it is not that is characterized in identity diffusion, identity foreclosure is characterized by a person who forms an identity without exploring alternatives do accepting the values of parents and being moralistic and conventional and unable to provide a good rationale for one’s beliefs and choices
Moratorium is characterized by taking time to ———
Explore options before making a commitment to an identity ( takes time and work)
Identity vs. Role Confusion: key idea, failure in this stage results in, stages
• Key Idea: Adolescents must figure out who they are (identity) to transition into stable adulthood.
• Failure in this stage: • Leads to confusion about goals, values, and roles. • Causes instability in relationships, jobs, and life direction. • Stages: • Identity Diffusion: No direction or purpose. • Moratorium: Exploring options. • Identity Achievement: Clear sense of self.
Emerging Social Needs by Age
• Infancy (0–2 years): Tenderness, key relationship is with parents.
• Childhood (2–6 years): Companionship, key relationship is with parents.
• Juvenile (6–9 years): Friendship, key relationship is with peers.
• Preadolescence (9–12 years): Close friendships, focus on same-sex “chum” friendships.
• Early Adolescence (12–16 years): Intimacy & passion, key relationship is a romantic partner.
• Late Adolescence (16–18 years): Commitment, focus shifts to a romantic partner.
Intimacy and Risks
• Early Adolescence Focus: Intimacy and passion with romantic partners.
• Potential Risks: Mismanaged intimacy at this stage can lead to issues in relationships and development.
Likelihood of Sexual Agreement Over Time
• Key Idea: The likelihood of agreeing to sex with someone attractive decreases as the duration of knowing the person increases.
• Men: Generally more willing across all time spans.
• Women: More selective and less likely to agree as time spans shorten.
• Time Scale:
• High likelihood: After 2 years or more.
• Low likelihood: Within hours of knowing someone.
What does the red zone refer to and does the parameters of the red zone vary from college to college, examples of parameters
- period of time early n ones first year at uni which women are thought to be at a particularly high risk for unwanted sexual experiences
- yes
- btw august to november, freshmen move in to fall break, freshmen move in and the first week of classes and the first 6 weeks of the fall semester
True or false the risk for unwanted sex is higher in the first year than in the second year
True
What is the hypothesized reasons for year 1 red zone
- partying
- alcohol consumption
- social vulnerability of first year students
( need rides, subjecting oneself to an isolated private place, lack of experience with alcohol, new found freedom and lack of knowledge regarding tacit rules for avoiding sexual assault)
Three stages of date rape
- Isolation
- Intrusion
- Desensitization
Adulthood is a time in which what 2 things take on special priority
Social relationships and personal accomplishments take on special priority
What is the highest risk factors for divorce
- lack of commitment (75%) then infidelity (59.6%) and family conflict (57.7%)
Causes of divorce by amato and previtti vs Whitman, Dixon and Johnson
Amato and previtti
- infidelity
- incompatibility
- alcohol and drug use
- growing apart
Whisman, Dixon, Johnson
- poor communication
- power struggles
- unrealistic expectations
- sexual relationship problems
- decision making
What are the 5 communication patterns that are risk factors for divorce
- Contempt; sarcasm, mockery etc
- Criticism; attacking partners character
- Defensiveness; refusing to take responsibility
- Stonewalling; exp silent treatment, ghosting
- Negative escalation; escalation of minor issues to major conflicts, spiral
Generativity (Middle Adulthood Development)
• Definition: Commitment to creating or nurturing things that will outlast oneself.
- Examples: Career, family, societal contributions.
- Focus: Others-oriented, directing resources outward.
- Key Age: Develops strongly in the 30s and 40s.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
• Generativity:
• Care, inclusion, open to experience.
• Tolerates differences, focuses on future generations.
• Encourages mentorship and collaboration.
• Stagnation: • Self-absorbed, narrow focus. • Resistant to change, prioritizes personal needs. • Rejects giving or sharing knowledge with others
Factors Influencing Generativity
( associated with high and low generativity)
• High Generativity:
• Strong friendships, marriage, positive parenting.
• Supervisory roles at work.
• Lower pessimism and self-doubt.
- children’s outcome described as good or excellent (66%)
• Low Generativity: • Bleak friendships (57%), failure to marry (37%). • High levels of passivity and pessimism (50%). • Jobs with little responsibility (93%). - children’s outcome described as good (23%)
Erikson’s Crisis for Later Adults is concerned with and what are the resolutions to the crisis and the takeaway
• Ego Integrity (feeling proud of ones life) vs. Despair (feeling regretful of ones life)
• Adequate Resolution: • Sense of wholeness. • Basic satisfaction with life. • Inadequate Resolution: • Feelings of futility and disappointment. • Takeaway: Successfully resolving the crisis leads to life fulfillment, while failure results in regret and despair.
- Early Adulthood (20-40 years): is the time to….
- Middle adulthood is the time to…
- Late adulthood is …
- Early adulthood
• This is the time to “sow seeds,” meaning you work hard, make decisions, and build your career, family, and relationships. - Middle Adulthood (40-65 years):
• This is the time to “reap,” or see the results of your earlier efforts. For example, enjoying the success of your career or seeing your kids grow up. - Late Adulthood (65+ years):
• This is like “wintertime.” You reflect on your life, but you can’t make big changes anymore. What you “sowed” earlier determines how fulfilled you feel now.
Midlife is a time for reflection: means what?
You start to think about what you’ve achieved and what your life means.
What does “You reap what you sow” mean?
The work and choices you made earlier shape your happiness and satisfaction later.
Language learning illustrates how … and what does baby talk illustrate
- A dynamic process between children and caregivers support development
- baby talk illustrates how infants elicit a behaviour from their care givers that benefit both parties, children learn the spoken language and this strengthens the bond between caregiver and infant
Theory of Mind & Prosocial Behavior
- Definition: Understanding that others have desires, intentions, beliefs & mental states.
- Coined by: Premack & Woodruff – ability to infer thoughts/feelings & predict behavior.
- Development: Emerges with frontal lobe maturation.
- Perspective-Taking: Recognizing different experiences shape perspectives.
- Social Impact: Helps predict emotions & reactions (e.g., when others are sad, angry).
- Prosocial Behavior: Acting to help others (e.g., comforting a sad person with a hug).
Presocial behavior and what is the link to theory of mind
- voluntary actions intended to benefit others
- the stronger the theory of mind the more pro-social behaviour ( pre social behaviour intended to help and benefit or support others)
Piaget believed that children were active learners through learning by interacting and observing consequences, that mistakes are key to learning and that children’s assumptions about the world are different from adults (true or false)
What do children create when they develop
- True
- new mental frameworks aka schemes
Schemes
• structured ways of making sense of experience and they change when they acquire new info about objects and events
What are the 2 learning processes and an example
- assimilation; a new experience is placed into an existing scheme
- accommodation; a new scheme is created to changing an existing one to include new information that otherwise wouldn’t fit into the old one
- toddler questioning what animal a Great Dane and cow is
Lev Vygotsky
- Social Focus: Cognitive development comes from social relationships, not just objects.
- Culture & Learning: Culture shapes what and how people learn.
-
Mental Functions:
- Elementary: Basic sensory experiences.
- Higher: Language, perception, memory, and abstract thinking.
- Culture & Cognition: Culture transforms basic abilities into complex thinking.
- Language & Thought: Language influences thinking; inner speech reflects higher cognition.
- Self & Environment: Learning happens through interaction with surroundings.
