Chapter 80 Anticoagulants and Neuraxial and Peripheral Nerve Blocks

Question 1

The predisposing factors to the development of DVTs

during surgery

Answer 1

stasis, intimal injury, and hypercoagulability

Question 2

Some of the risk factors for the development of DVTs are

Answer 2

previous history of DVT or pulmonary embolism,
major surgery, age over 60, obesity, malignancy,
increased duration of surgery, prolonged immobilization,
presence of varicose veins, and the use of estrogen. The
problem is pronounced in total joint operations where
intraoperative factors predispose to the development of DVTs.

Question 3

The increased coagulability of the

blood is aggravated by

Answer 3

decreases in antithrombin III and tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA).

Question 4

the most reliable diagnostic test for DVT

Answer 4

Ascending venous contrast venography. It is invasive, requires a radiology suite,

Question 5

the first-line modality for confirming diagnosis of DVT in

symptomatic patients.

Answer 5

B-mode compression ultrasonography with and without Doppler. It is portable and the most accurate
noninvasive study of DVTs. Failure of the vein to compress
is indirect evidence that a thrombus is present

Question 6

The prevention of DVT after total joint surgery includes

Answer 6

intraoperative, mechanical, and pharmacologic measures

Question 7

The use of epidural hypotensive anesthesia is associated with improved

Answer 7

visualization of the operative field, less intraoperative

blood loss, and shorter duration of surgery

Question 8

Mechanical devices decrease stasis by

Answer 8

augmenting venous flow in the lower legs, and appear to have a fibrinolytic effect through a reduction in plasminogen activator inhibitor. Various types of mechanical devices include calf-length sleeve, thigh-length stockings, and foot pump devices

Question 9

the most efficacious way of preventing DVT

Answer 9

A combination of mechanical

and pharmacologic measures

Question 10

The pharmacologic management of DVTs includes

Answer 10

the use of aspirin, warfarin, LMWH, thrombin inhibitors, and the newer drugs including rivaroxaban

Question 11

For aspirin, most regimens use doses of

Answer 11

325 to 650 mg twice a day. The risks

of aspirin use are gastritis and gastric erosions or ulcers

Question 12

For warfarin, the usual dosing

regimen is

Answer 12

mg given the night of surgery, followed by adjustment of the dose to maintain an international normalized
ratio (INR) of 2.0 to 2.5. Higher INRs may result in hemarthromas. The therapy is maintained for 1 month after
surgery

Question 13

ecause of warfarin’s delayed effect and the early

development of postoperative thrombus

Answer 13

add an LMWH as a “bridge therapy” while

the effect of warfarin is commencing

Question 14

Heparin is not widely used for postoperative prophylaxis

after total joint surgery probably because

Answer 14

of the better bioavailability and predictability of LMWH.

Question 15

The LMWH therapy

Answer 15

continued for 1 to 2 weeks after the surgery.

Question 16

Fondaparinux

Answer 16

a specific Xa inhibitor, is given for 5 to 9 days after surgery
at a daily dose of 2.5 mg. The drug reduces the incidence
of venous thromboembolism by 57%, comparable
to enoxaparin.

Question 17

Ximelagatran

Answer 17

an oral thrombin inhibitor. However, its use resulted in severe liver toxicity and this led
to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommending against its approval.

Question 18

The medication recommendations of
the group for patients at standard risk of both pulmonary
embolism and bleeding, and for patients at elevated risk for
pulmonary embolism and standard risk of major bleeding,
include the following (in alphabetical order):

Answer 18

aspirin; LWMH, pentassacharides, and warfarin (INR goal of

Question 19

For patients at standard risk of pulmonary embolism
and elevated risk of bleeding, and for patients at elevated
risk of both pulmonary embolism and major bleeding, the group recommended the following medications

Answer 19

aspirin
and warfarin (INR goal of

Question 20

In patients with STEMI regardless of whether they undergo reperfusion or fibrinolytic therapy

Answer 20

With regards to anticoagulants, the task force recommended the addition of clopidogrel to aspirin

Question 21

The ACA/AHA guidelines

recommended that clopidogrel should be discontinued

Answer 21

or
at least 5 days and preferably 7 days unless the urgency for
revascularization outweighs the risks of excess bleeding.

Question 22

For
STEMI patients who do not undergo reperfusion therapy,
the ACA/AHA guidelines stated that

Answer 22

it is reasonable to give
IV or subcutaneous unfractionated heparin (UFH) or subcutaneous
LMWH for at least 48 hr.

Question 23

For patients who

undergo invasive management, anticoagulant therapy with

Answer 23

unfractionated heparin or LMWH is recommended

Question 24

After stent placement, it has been recommended that

aspirin be continued for

Answer 24

1 month after a bare-metal stent, 3 months after a sirolimus-eluting stent, and 6 months after a paclitaxel-eluting stent

Question 25

For clopidogrel, it has been

recommended that the drug be continued for

Answer 25

at least 1 month and ideally up to a year, and for at least 1 year after both sirolimus- and paclitaxel-eluting stent

Question 26

Problems with warfarin include its

Answer 26

narrow therapeutic range (INR 2–3), unpredictable and patientspecific dose response, delayed onset and offset of action, need for anticoagulation monitoring, slow reversibility,
and many drug–drug and drug–food interactions.

Question 27

Antiplatelet therapy is highly effective in reducing

Answer 27

the risk of recurrent ischemic stroke or TIA and is recommended over oral anticoagulant for noncardioembolic stroke

Question 28

Aspirin MAO

Answer 28

irreversibly binds to the platelet COX enzyme inhibiting the formation of thromboxane A2 that causes platelet aggregation, resulting in the formation of an
adequate but fragile clot.

Question 29

Aspirin Dosing and Effects

Answer 29

Most regimens use doses of 325 to 650 mg twice a day. Lower doses of aspirin are more effective in preventing clot formation, as the platelet COX enzyme is blocked, decreasing the formation of thromboxane A2, which causes platelet aggregation. Higher doses of aspirin inhibit the COX enzyme in the platelets and in the vascular endothelium; this inhibition also results in decreased levels of PGI2, which inhibits platelet aggregation. The ultimate effect of higher dosages is therefore a reflection of the antagonistic effects of reduced levels of
thromboxane A2 and PGI2.

Question 30

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)

Answer 30

bind to the platelet COX enzyme but the binding is

reversible; their effect on platelet function usually normalizes within 3 days

Question 31

platelet function analyzer (PFA).

Answer 31

a test
of in vitro platelet function, as well as a good screening
test for von Willebrand disease, monitoring the effect of
DDAVP administration, and is prolonged after antiplatelet
therapy. The test measures the ability of platelets to occlude a microscopic aperture in a membrane coated with
collagen and epinephrine (C-EPI or PFA-I) or collagen
and adenosine diphosphate (C-ADP or PFA II) under controlled high shear rates. The time required to obtain a
complete platelet plug is the closure time in seconds. The
normal closure times are 60 to 160 s for C-EPI and 50 to
124 s for C-ADP. Aspirin and NSAIDs prolong the closure
time of C-EPI, while clopidogrel, von Willebrand disease, low platelet count, low hematocrit, and renal failure prolong the closure time for C-ADP.

Question 32

COX-2 inhibitors

Answer 32

have analgesic effects. They have less gastrointestinal

toxicity and compared to aspirin or NSAIDS,

Question 33

thienopyridine drugs ticlopidine and clopidogrel

Answer 33

inhibit platelet aggregation by inhibiting ADP receptor mediated platelet activation. These drugs also modulate
vascular smooth muscle reducing vascular contraction.
Clopidogrel is 40 to 100 times more potent than ticlopidine.

Question 34

ticlopidine and clopidogrel dose

Answer 34

The doses employed are 75 mg daily for clopidogrel and 250 mg twice a day for ticlopidine

Question 35

Ticlopidine is rarely

used because it causes

Answer 35

hypercholesterolemia, neutropenia, and thrombocytopenic purpura. There is also a possible
delayed antithrombotic effect of ticlopidine and may not
offer protection in the cardiac patient for the first 2 weeks of ticlopidine therapy.

Question 36

Clopidogrel is preferred because

Answer 36

it has a better safety profile and appears to have a better effect
than aspirin in patients with peripheral vascular disease and
is increasingly used in these patients.

Question 37

The maximal inhibition of ADP-induced platelet aggregation with clopidogrel
occurs

Answer 37

3 to 5 days after initiation of a standard dose (75 mg),
but within 4 to 6 hr after the administration of a large loading dose (300–600 mg). The large loading dose is given to patients before they undergo percutaneous coronary intervention.

Question 38

neuraxial blocks may be performed in patients on

Answer 38

aspirin or NSAIDs

Question 39

Neuraxial blocks in patients on COX-2 inhibitors are

Answer 39

safe, although the concomitant use of COX-2

inhibitors and warfarin may increase the risk of bleeding.

Question 40

For clopidogrel, it is recommended that the drug be discontinued for

Answer 40

7 days before a neuraxial injection. In contrast, a delay of 10 to 14 days is recommended with ticlopidine. This is because the half-life of ticlopidine increases from
12 hr after a single dose to 4 to 5 days after a steady state is reached

Question 41

Aspirin and NSAIDs alone

Answer 41

do not significantly increase
the risk of spinal hematoma. The combination of these
drugs, however, increases the risk of spontaneous hemorrhagic complications, bleeding at puncture sites, and spinal hematoma. The society cautioned the performance of intraspinal injections in patients who are on combined antiplatelet medications.

Question 42

For patients on clopidogrel and aspirin, it is recommended

that the clopidogrel be stopped for

Answer 42

7 days and the
patient placed on aspirin therapy. The aspirin is then continued up to the time of injection, after which the patient is switched back on clopidogrel after the block. If the indication for the anticoagulation is very strong then LMWH can be given during the 7 days that the clopidogrel is stopped.

Question 43

Warfarin

Answer 43

an oral anticoagulant that interferes with the synthesis of the vitamin K–dependent clotting factors II, VII, IX, and X. It also inhibits the anticoagulant protein C. Both factor VII and protein C have short halflives
(6–7 hr) and increase in the INR is the result of the
competing effects of reduced factor VII and protein C
and the washout of existing clotting factors.

Question 44

after the initial dose of Warfarin Prophylactic anticoagulation (INRs of 2.0–2.5) is
reached

Answer 44

48 to 72 hr after the initial dose

Question 45

The anticoagulant

effect of warfarin is primarily dependent on

Answer 45

the levels of factor II that has a half-life of 50 hr. Maximal anticoagulation is reached in 4 to 5 days when factor II is sufficiently reduced

Question 46

The risks of warfarin usage are

Answer 46

bleeding and the rare occurrence of skin necrosis. Its drawbacks
include the necessity of monitoring its effect with serial INR monitoring, its interaction with a host of other drugs,
and the fact that it has to be stopped a few days before
surgery.

Question 47

for safe placement

of the epidural catheter ASRA recommended an INR of

Answer 47

1.4

Question 48

concentrations of factor II in relation to INR

Answer 48

At INR values of 1.5 to 2.0,
the concentrations of factor II were found to be 74% to
82% of baseline while factor VII levels were 27% to 54% of baseline values. Levels of 20% of normal are considered
adequate for normal hemostasis at the time of major
surgery

Question 49

the factor VII activity should be

determined If risk factors such

Answer 49

as low platelets,
advanced age, kidney failure, or intake of other anticoagulants
are present

Question 50

Warfarin is metabolized primarily by

Answer 50

the CYP2C9

enzyme of the cytochrome P450 system

Question 51

Heparins

Answer 51

glycosaminoglycans that consist of chains
of alternating residues of d-glucosamine and uronic acid,
either glucuronic acid or iduronic acid.

Question 52

Unfractionated

heparin

Answer 52

heterogeneous mixture of polysaccharide

chains ranging in molecular weight from 3000 to 30,000.

Question 53

A unique pentasaccharide sequence

Answer 53

randomly distributed
along the heparin chains, binds to antithrombin (AT).The binding of the heparin pentasaccharide to AT causes a conformational change in AT that accelerates its ability to inactivate thrombin, factor Xa, and factor IXa.

Question 54

UFH releases tissue factor pathway inhibitor from

Answer 54

endothelium, enhancing its activity against factor Xa

Question 55

The anticoagulant effect of subcutaneous heparin takes

Answer 55

1 to 2 hr but the effect of intravenous heparin is immediate

Question 56

used to monitor the effect of heparin

Answer 56

aPTT. therapeutic
anticoagulation is achieved with a prolongation of
the aPTT to greater than 1.5 times the baseline value or a heparin level of 0.2 to 0.4 U/ml. The aPTT is usually not prolonged by the subcutaneous administration of low doses of heparin and is not monitored

Question 57

for DVT prophylaxis UFH is either administered as

Answer 57

an intravenous injection

or as subcutaneous injection for DVT prophylaxis

Question 58

The risk factors in the development of intraspinal hematoma

in patients who are given systemic heparin

Answer 58

(1) an interval of less than 1 hr between the lumbar puncture and heparin administration; (2) concomitant use of other
anticoagulants such as aspirin; and (3) traumatic needle placements.

Question 59

ASRA guidelines on the performance of neuraxial procedures in patients who are anticoagulated with heparin are as follows

Answer 59

(1) the neuraxial technique should be avoided in patients with other coagulopathies;
(2) although the occurrence of bloody or difficult needle placement
increases the risk of hematoma, discussion with the surgeon of the risk/benefit ratio should determine cancellation
or noncancellation of the case;
(3) the heparin administration should be delayed for 1 hr after needle placement;
(4) indwelling neuraxial catheters should be removed 2 to 4 hr after the last heparin dose, and the patient’s coagulation
status is evaluated and reheparinization occurs 1 hr
after catheter removal; and (5) minimal concentrations of local anesthetics should be used for early detection of signs of spinal hematoma and the patient is monitored postoperatively for signs of hematoma

Question 60

In general surgery and urology, patients who undergo major procedures, the subcutaneous UFH

Answer 60

Is given perioperatively

for DVT prophylaxis.

Question 61

Heparin, 5000 U, when

given subcutaneously every 12 hr, causes

Answer 61

barely detectable changes in the aPTT; the very few patients that have prolongations of their aPTT do not exceed 1.5 times the normal levels.

Question 62

debate as to whether
neuraxial procedures should be performed in patients
who undergo cardiopulmonary bypass. In these patients the
following precautions have been recommended

Answer 62

(1) neuraxial procedures should be avoided in patients with a known coagulopathy,
(2) surgery should be delayed 24 hr in the patient with a traumatic tap,
(3) the time from the neuraxial procedure to the systemic heparinization
should exceed 1 hr,
(4) heparinization and reversal should be monitored and controlled tightly, and
(5) the epidural catheter should be removed when normal coagulation is restored and the patient should be monitored closely for signs of spinal hematoma after the catheter is removed

Question 63

Heparin is not the ideal anticoagulant:

Answer 63

it is a mixture of molecules of which only a fraction has anticoagulant activity. It binds to platelet factor IV, which is released from activated platelets, to a number of plasma proteins, and to high-molecular-weight multimers of von Willebrand factor that are released from platelets and endothelial cells. The heparin–antithrombin complex is also not very effective in neutralizing clot-bound thrombin. These factors result in an unpredictable anticoagulant effect of heparin necessitating careful laboratory monitoring when it is used in therapeutic dosages.

Question 64

Low-molecular-weight heparins

Answer 64

the fractionated forms

of heparin with a mean molecular weight of 5000.

Question 65

LMWH activates

Answer 65

antithrombin, accelerating antithrombin’s interaction with thrombin and factor Xa. LMWH, like unfractionated heparin, also releases tissue factor pathway from the endothelium

Question 66

compared to heparin

Answer 66

LMWHs have a longer half-life and dose independent
clearance compared to heparin, resulting in a
more predictable anticoagulant response.

Question 67

The reduced binding with plasma proteins and endothelium of LMWH results in

Answer 67

the LMWHs’ better bioavailability and predictability than

unfractionated heparin.

Question 68

The plasma half-life of the LMWHs ranges from

Answer 68

2 to 4 hr after
an intravenous injection and 3 to 6 hr after a subcutaneous
injection.

Question 69

after injection of LMWH anti-Xa activity is present for

Answer 69

12 hr after injection of LMWH

Question 70

Laboratory monitoring for LMWH

Answer 70

Laboratory monitoring
is not necessary except in patients with renal insufficiency or those with body weight less than 50 kg or more than 80 kg.

Question 71

The reaction time (r-time) from the thrombelastogram, a test that is easily available, was found to correlate with

Answer 71

the serum anti-Xa concentration

Question 72

LMWH used a prophylaxis against thromboembolism

in surgical settings such as

Answer 72

general surgery, total hip and knee replacements, surgery for hip fractures, and multiple trauma. Also, LMWHs have been used in unstable angina, acute myocardial infarction, and ischemic stroke

Question 73

most commonly used LMWHs

Answer 73

enoxaparin (Lovenox) and dalteparin (Fragmin).

Question 74

enoxaparin (Lovenox) and dalteparin (Fragmin) DOSING

Answer 74

given once daily or every 12 hr (a dosing
that is assocaited with increased risk of spinal hematoma),
while dalteparin is given once a day.

Question 75

The recommendations of the ASRA for patients receiving

LMWH and neuraxial anesthesia are as follows

Answer 75

l Monitoring of the anti-Xa level is not recommended.
l The administration of antiplatelet or oral anticoagulant medications with LMWHs may increase the risk of spinal hematoma.
l The presence of blood during needle placement and catheter placement does not necessitate postponement of surgery. However, the initiation of LMWH therapy should be delayed for 24 hr postoperatively.
l The first dose of LMWH prophylaxis after twice-daily enoxaparin should be given no earlier than 24 hr postoperatively and only in the presence of adequate hemostasis. It may be given 6 to 8 hr after a once-daily dosing
of enoxaparin.
l In patients who are on LMWH, needle/catheter placement should occur at least 12 hr after the last prophylactic dose of enoxaparin or 24 hr after dalteparin (120 U/kg
every 12 hr or 200 U/kg every 12 hr), or after higher doses of enoxaparin (1 mg/kg every 12 hr; 1.5 mg/kg daily).
l There should be a 12-hr interval between the last
prophylactic dose of enoxaparin and removal of the epidural catheter. For higher doses of enoxaparin, a 24-hr delay is recommended.
l The LMWH may be administered 2 hr after the epidural catheter is removed.

Question 76

Fondaparinux

Answer 76

is a synthetic anticoagulant that is a selective
Xa inhibitor. Because it is synthesized chemically, it
exhibits batch-to-batch consistency. The drug is rapidly absorbed, reaching a maximum concentration within 1.7 hr of dosing and has a half-life of 21 hr. It has 100% bioavailability. A dose of 2.5 mg is given subcutaneously
6 hr after surgery, and subsequently once a day.

Question 77

hirudin

Answer 77

a direct thrombin inhibitor. Hirudin acts independently of antithrombin and other plasma proteins.

Question 78

The commercially

available thrombin inhibitors include

Answer 78

the recombinant hirudin derivatives desirudin (Revasc®), lepirudin
(Refludan®), and bivalirudin (Angiomax®), and the synthetic L-arginine derivative argatroban (Acova®).

Question 79

thrombin inhibitors MOA

Answer 79

These
drugs can neutralize free and clot-bound thrombin and are used in the treatment of thrombosis in patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and in the prevention
of thromboembolic complications after total hip replacement

Question 80

thrombin inhibitors anticoagulant effect is present for

Answer 80

1 to 3 hr and is monitored by the aPTT. There is no pharmacologic reversal to the effect of these drugs

Question 81

Dabigatran etexilate

Answer 81

an oral direct thrombin inhibitor. Bioavailability is only 5%, peak plasma levels occur at 2 hr,
and its half-life is 8 hr after a single dose, although it can be up to 17 hr after multiple doses

Question 82

Rivaroxaban

Answer 82

an oral factor Xa inhibitor. It has an 80% bioavalability; its peak effect occurs after 1 to 4 hr and its duration of effect is 12 hr. It has a half-life of 9 to 13 hr. The drug offers several salutary characteristics including efficacy and simplicity of
once-daily oral dosing

Question 83

Prasugrel

Answer 83

an oral anticoagulant prodrug. Its mechanism
of action is similar to clopidogrel, that is, noncompetitive antagonist of P2Y12, inhibiting the ability of platelet ADP to induce aggregation for the life of the platelet

Question 84

Prasugrel vs. clopidogrel

Answer 84

Prasugrel has a quicker onset of action, the effect of 60 mg is 1 to 1.5 hr compared to 6 hr with 300 mg clopidogrel. It is 10 times more potent and is less prone to drug–drug
interactions and patient nonresponsiveness

Question 85

Prasugrel and neuraxial injection

Answer 85

The drug causes 90% platelet inhibition and a 7-day interval between
discontinuation of the drug and neuraxial injection is recommended

Question 86

Garlic

Answer 86

inhibits platelet aggregation and its effect on

hemostasis appears to last 7 days

Question 87

Ginkgo

Answer 87

inhibits platelet-
activating factor and its effect lasts 36 hr, while the
effect of ginseng lasts 24 h

Question 88

herbal drugs and neuraxial block

Answer 88

At this time, there appears to be no specific concerns as to the timing of neuraxial block in relationship to the dosing of herbal therapy, postoperative monitoring, or the timing of neuraxial catheter removal

Question 89

Pregnancy and puerperium are accompanied by increased risk of

Answer 89

thrombosis.

Question 90

Thromboprophylaxis is recommended in women with

Answer 90

AT deficiency, homozygosity for the factor V Leiden mutation, homozygosity for the prothrombin gene G20210A mutation, or homozygosity for both mutations.

Question 91

recommendations have been made with

regards to anticoagulation during pregnancy:

Answer 91

(1) oral anticoagulants
should be switched to LMWH or unfractionated
heparin no later than 36 weeks, (2) LMWH should be discontinued and switched to heparin at least 36 hr before induction of labor or cesarean section delivery, (3) IV heparin should be discontinued 4 to 6 hr before the anticipated
delivery

Question 92

The hematomas occurred in patients with abnormal and normal coagulation status, and in patients who were given

Answer 92

LMWH, ticlopidine and clopidogrel, warfarin,

heparin, or a combination of these drugs

Question 93

The diagnosis of bleeding after peripheral nerve block in patients on anticoagulants include

Answer 93

pain (flank or paravertebral
pain or groin pain in psoas bleeding), tenderness
in the area, fall in hemoglobin/hematocrit, fall in blood pressure, and sensory and motor deficits

Question 94

definitive diagnosis of bleeding after peripheral nerve block made by

Answer 94

computed tomography, ultrasound can be a diagnostic aid and its increasing use will make this modality a useful tool in diagnosing and following peripheral hematomas

Question 95

Treatments of peripheral

hematomas usually include

Answer 95

surgical consult, blood

transfusion as necessary, and watchful waiting versus surgical drainage

Question 96

Aspirin, NSAIDs, COX-2 inhibitors

Answer 96

May continue

Pain clinic patients: aspirin preferably stopped 2–3 days in thoracic and cervical epidurals

Question 97

Thienopyridine derivatives

Answer 97

(a) Clopidogrel (Plavix): discontinue for 7 days.
May perform neuraxial block after 5 days if P2Y12 assay shows less than 10% platelet inhibition.
(b) Ticlopidine (Ticlid): discontinue for 14 days.
Prasugrel: discontinue for 7-10 days.
Do not perform a neuraxial block in patients on more than one antiplatelet drug.

Question 98

Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors: time to normal platelet aggregation

Answer 98

(a) Abciximab (ReoPro) 5 24 to 48 hr
(b) Eptifibatide (Integrilin) 5 4 to 8 hr
(c) Tirofiban (Aggrastat) 5 4 to 8 hr

Question 99

Warfarin

Answer 99

Check INR (coagulant response time).
INR ,1.5 before neuraxial block or epidural catheter removal.

Question 100

Subcutaneous heparin (5000 units SC q 12 hr)

Answer 100

Subcutaneous heparin BID is not a contraindication against a neuraxial block.
Neuraxial injection may not be performed in a patient on subcutaneous heparin TID.
Neuraxial block should preferably be performed before SC heparin is given.
Risk of decreased platelet count with SC heparin therapy .5 days

Question 101

Intravenous heparin

Answer 101

Neuraxial block: 2 to 4 hr after the last intravenous heparin dose
Wait >1 hr after neuraxial block before giving intravenous heparin.

Question 102

LMWH preoperative

Answer 102

LMWH preoperative
(a) Wait 12 hr before a neuraxial block:
Enoxaparin (Lovenox) 0.5 mg/kg BID (prophylactic dose)
(b) Wait 24 hr before a neuraxial block:
Enoxaparin (Lovenox), 1 mg/kg BID (therapeutic dose)
Enoxaparin (Lovenox), 1.5 mg/kg QD
Dalteparin (Fragmin), 120 units/kg BID
Dalteparin (Fragmin), 200 units/kg QD
Tinzaparin (Innohep), 175 units/kg QD

Question 103

LMWH postoperative

Answer 103

Twice-daily dosing: LMWH should not be started until after 24 hr after surgery.
Once-daily dosing: LMWH may be given 6 to 8 hr.
LMWH should not be given until >2 hr after epidural catheter removal

Question 104

Patients with epidural catheter who are given LMWH

Answer 104

The catheter should be removed at the earliest opportunity.
Enoxaparin (0.5 mg/kg): remove the epidural catheter 12 hr after last dose.
Enoxaparin (1 to 1.5 mg/kg), dalteparin, tinzaparin: remove the epidural catheter 24 hr after last dose.
Restart the LMWH 2 hr after the catheter removal.
Summary recommendations for LMWH (preoperative and postoperative): Wait 24 hr except for patients on low-dose enoxaparin (0.5 mg/kg), in which case a 12-hr interval is adequate.
Wait 2 hr after the catheter is removed before starting LMWH.

Question 105

Specific Xa Inhibitor: Fondaparinux (Arixtra)

Answer 105

Short onset, long duration (plasma half-life: 21 hr)
ASRA: no definite recommendation
If neuraxial procedure has to be performed, recommend single-needle atraumatic placement, avoid indwelling catheter.
Rivaroxaban: a new oral factor Xa inhibitor, half-life of 9–13 hr. Approximately a 24-hr interval, or 23 the drug’s half-life, between the drug and
epidural placement was observed in studies.

Question 106

Fibrinolytic/Thrombolytic Drugs

Answer 106

No data on safety interval for performance of neuraxial procedure
Follow fibrinogen levels
ASRA: no definite recommendation

Question 107

Thrombin Inhibitors

Answer 107

Anticoagulant effect lasts 3 hr
Monitored by aPTT
ASRA: no recommendation at this time because of paucity of data
Dabigatran: a new oral direct thrombin inhibitor, half-life of 8-17 hours (recommended interval between drug discontinuation and neuraxial
injections is 2-3 half-lives).

Question 108

Herbal Therapy

Answer 108

Mechanism of anticoagulant effect and time to normal hemostasis:
Garlic: inhibits platelet aggregation, increased fibrinolysis; 7 days
Ginkgo: inhibits platelet-activating factor; 36 hr
Ginseng: increased PT and PTT; 24 hr
ASRA: neuraxial block not contraindicated for single herbal medication use
The guidelines are the same for the placement and removal of epidural catheters.

Question 109

Antiplatelets

Answer 109

ASA, NSAIDs:
Not contraindicated
Discontinue ticlopidine for
14 days and clopidogrel
7 days

Question 110

Heparin

Answer 110

Subcutaneous: No
contraindication with BID
dosing, contraindicated with
TID dosing
IV: Heparin 1 hr after neuraxial
injection, remove catheter
2–4 hr after heparin

Question 111

LMWH

Answer 111

BID dosing: LMWH 24 hr
after surgery, remove catheter 2 hr before LMWH
Once-daily dosing:

Question 112

Warfarin

Answer 112

INR < 1.5

Question 113

Fondaparinux

Answer 113

Single injection, atraumatic placement, no indwelling

catheter

Question 114

Thrombi inhibitors

Answer 114

Suggest avoidance because

of insufficient information

Question 115

Thrombolytics

Answer 115

Contraindicated