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Biology Module 3 Exchange And Transport > Chapter 8 Transport In Animals 2.0 > Flashcards

Chapter 8 Transport In Animals 2.0 Flashcards

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1
Q

Why do multicellular organisms require specialised transport systems?

A

-Multicellular organisms have a higher metabolic demands
-Multicellular organisms have a small surface area to volume ratio so diffusion alone would occur too slowly.
-Molecules synthesised in one area may need to be transported to another area
-Food needs transportation for cellular respiration
-Waste products need to be removed and transported to excretory organs

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2
Q

What are the features that make up a circulatory system?

A

-Contain a liquid medium that circulates the system
-Contain vessels which carry the transport medium
-Have a pumping mechanism to move fluid around the system

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3
Q

What is a Mass transport system?

A

A transport system where substances are transported in a mass of fluid

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4
Q

What are the features of an open circulatory system?

A

Contain a heart but few vessels that carry the transport medium

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5
Q

What type of circulatory system do invertebrate (insects) have?

A

Open circulatory system

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6
Q

How does the open circulatory system of an insect function?

A

The transport medium known as the Haemolymph is pumped from the heart to the open body cavity called the Haemocoel.
In the Haemocoel, the transport medium is pumped under low pressure and comes into direct contact with tissues and cells so exchange can take place.
The Haemolymph then returns back to the heart through an open ended vessel.

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7
Q

What does Haemolymph carry?

A

Transports food, nitrogenous waste and cells involved in defence against disease.

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8
Q

What is a closed circulatory system?

A

A circulatory system where the blood is enclosed in blood vessels and does not come into direct contact with cells.

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9
Q

How does the closed circulatory system function?

A

The heart pumps the blood inside blood vessels around the body under high pressure before it returns back to the heart.
During circulation, gases and small molecules are free to diffuse out of the blood via diffusion.
The blood transports mainly oxygen and carbon dioxide, the oxygen is usually carried by pigmented proteins.

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10
Q

What type of circulatory system do vertebrate have?

A

Closed Circulatory system

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11
Q

What are the three types of circulatory system that can be found in vertebrates?

A

Single circulatory system
Partial double circulatory system
Double circulatory system
(All systems are closed)

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12
Q

What is a single circulatory system?

A

The blood passes through the heart once per cycle

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13
Q

What type of vertebrates have single closed circulatory systems?

A

Fish

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14
Q

How does the single circulatory system in fish function?

A

Blood passes through two sets of capillaries, before returning to the heart.
Immediately after being pumped out of the heart, the blood flows through the capillaries in the gills to become oxygenated.
The blood will then flow through the next set of capillaries, exchanging substances with the rest of the body before returning back to the heart again.

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15
Q

Why is the efficiency of single closed systems limited ?

A

As blood flows through two sets of capillaries, the blood pressure becomes very low so organisms using this system tend to be relatively inactive (exception of fish)

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16
Q

Why is a single closed circulatory system efficient for fish?

A

Fish are active with a single closed circulatory system because overall they have lower metabolic demands:
-Their body weight is supported by the water
-They do not maintain their own body temperature
-They use a countercurrent exchange mechanism for efficient gas exchange

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17
Q

What is a partial double circulatory system?

A

Circulatory system that contains three vessel leading to 2 atria and 1 ventricle in the heart.
The system is at low pressure because blood flows through two networks of capillaries meaning blood is never fully oxygenated.

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18
Q

What is a double circulatory system?

A

The blood passes through the heart twice per cycle

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19
Q

What types of vertebrate use a partial double circulatory system?

A

Amphibians and reptiles

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20
Q

What types of vertebrates use a double circulatory system?

A

Birds and mammals

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21
Q

How does a double circulatory system function?

A

Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the heart to the lungs to pick up oxygen and removes carbon dioxide, the blood then becomes oxygenated and then returns back to the heart.
The oxygenated blood then flows through the heart and is pumped out to travel all around the body, delivering oxygen to cells before returning back to the heart again as deoxygenated blood.

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22
Q

Why is a double closed circulatory system an efficient transport system?

A

Each circuit ( to lungs or body and back to the heart) of the blood only passes through one capillary network which therefore maintains a high pressure and fast flow of blood.

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23
Q

What are the different structural components that make up blood vessels?

A

Elastic fibres
Smooth muscle
Collagen

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24
Q

What is the function of Elastic fibres in blood vessels?

A

Provide vessel walls with flexibility as they are able to stretch and recoil.

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25
Q

What is the function of smooth muscle in blood vessels?

A

Controls the flow of blood as it can change the size of the lumen by contracting and relaxing.

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26
Q

What is the function of collagen in blood vessels?

A

Provides structural support to maintain shape and volume of the vessel.

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27
Q

What is the function of the Arteries?

A

Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the tissues of the body.
With the exception of the pulmonary artery which carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs

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28
Q

What structural components make up the structure of the artery?

A

Collagen outer layer
Smooth Muscle
Elastic fibres
Endothelium inner layer

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29
Q

How is the structure of the arteries adapted for its function?

A

-Elastic fibres enable arteries to withstand the force of blood being pumped to heart, inbetween contractions of the heart the elastic fibres recoil and return to their original length evening out the surges of blood being pumped from the heart.
-Endothelium is smooth so blood can flow easily over it
-Collagen limits the stretch of the elastic fibre to protect the artery
-Smooth muscles contracts and relaxes regulating the flow of blood

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30
Q

What are arterioles?

A

Vessels which link the arteries and capillaries

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31
Q

What is the function of arterioles?

A

Constrict and dilate to control the flow of blood into organs.
Controlled via vasodilation and vasoconstriction.

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32
Q

Describe the structure of the arterioles

A

Have more smooth muscle and less elastin in their walls than arteries.

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33
Q

What is Vasocontriction?

A

The constriction of the smooth muscle in arterioles which reduces blood flow to the capillaries

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34
Q

What is Vasodilation?

A

Smooth muscles of the arterioles relaxes allowing blood to flow to capillaries

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35
Q

What are Capillaries?

A

Vessels which link arterioles and venules by forming an extensive network through all the tissues of the body.

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36
Q

What is the function of the Capillaries?

A

Substances can be exchanged through the capillary walls between the gaps of the endothelial cells.
Small lumen means RBC have to travel single file, meaning exchange can take place effectively

37
Q

Describe the structure of Capillaries

A

Made up of a single layer of endothelial cells forming a small lumen

38
Q

How are the Capillaries adapted for their function?

A

Large surface area for diffusion of substances into and out of blood
Walls are single endothelial cell thick providing a thin surface for diffusion
Rate of blood flow falls in the capillaries, allowing more time for the exchange of substances by diffusion

39
Q

What is the function of Veins?

A

Carry deoxygenated blood from the body towards the heart.
With exception of pulmonary vein which carried oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the heart.
As pressure is low, veins are adapted to maintain the flow of blood through the body.

40
Q

What structural components make up the structure of the veins?

A

Collagen outer layer
Smooth muscle
Elastic fibres
Endothelium inner layer

41
Q

What structural components make up the structure of the veins?

A

Collagen outer layer
Smooth muscle
Elastic fibres
Endothelium inner layer

42
Q

Describe the structure of the veins

A

The vein walls have more collagen
Little elastic fibre and little smooth muscle
Wide lumen made up of endothelial cells
Veins also contain valves

43
Q

Why don’t veins have a pulse?

A

Surges from the heart are lost as blood passes through the capillaries, lowering the pressure .

44
Q

How are veins adapted for their function?

A

Maintain the flow of blood through:
-Valves which prevent the back flow of blood
-Large veins run through the active muscles of the body as the muscle contractions help to push blood back to the heart.
-Breathing contractions changes pressure to move blood in the veins of the chest and abdomen back to the heart.

45
Q

Describe how valves function in veins

A

Veins have one way valves at intervals- this means the valves open when blood flows in the direction of the heart and closes to prevent blood flowing backwards

46
Q

What are Venules?

A

Link capillaries and veins

47
Q

What is the function of venules?

A

Carries deoxygenated blood from the capillaries into venules

48
Q

Describe the structure of venules

A

Thin walls which have little smooth muscle

49
Q

What are the main components of the blood?

A

Plasma
Platelets
Red blood cells (Erthrocytes)
White blood cells

50
Q

What is the role of plasma?

A

Makes up the largest volume of blood and carries a variety of substances such as amino acids, glucose, plasma proteins, platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells.

51
Q

What is the role of platelets?

A

Fragments of cells involved in the clotting mechanism of blood.

52
Q

What is oncotic pressure?

A

The tendency of water to move into the blood by osmosis as a result of plasma proteins

53
Q

Describe how oncotic pressure is established

A

Plasma proteins in the blood are too large to move out of the capillaries and therefore lower the water potential of the blood. As a result, water moves back into the capillaries from the surrounding fluid by osmosis.

54
Q

What is the approximate value of oncotic pressure?

A

-3.3kPa

55
Q

What is hydrostatic pressure?

A

Pressure created by water in an enclosed system

56
Q

Describe how hydrostatic pressure is established

A

As blood flows through the arterioles into capillaries, it is still under pressure from the surges of blood that occur every time the heart contracts. Therefore, this causes hydrostatic pressure and fluid is forced out of the capillaries forming tissue fluid.

57
Q

What is the approximate value for hydrostatic pressure at the arteriole end

A

4.6kPa

58
Q

What is the approximate value of hydrostatic pressure at the venule end

A

2.3kPa

59
Q

Describe how hydrostatic pressure is lost

A

However, as the blood moves through the capillaries toward the venules, the hydrostatic pressure falls as the surges are lost.
The oncotic pressure becomes stronger than the hydrostatic pressure so water moves back into the capillaries by osmosis.

60
Q

What is tissue fluid?

A

Fluid that permeates the spaces between individual cells.

61
Q

What are the components that make up tissue fluid?

A

Substances that can leave the blood plasma- oxygen, water, amino acids.
However, it DOES NOT contain red blood cells or large plasma proteins as they are too large to be forced out the capillaries.

62
Q

What is Filtration pressure?

A

The overall pressure of substances being forced out of the capillaries into the tissue fluid.

63
Q

How can Filtration pressure be calculated?

A

Hydrostatic pressure— oncotic pressure

64
Q

What is lymph?

A

Modified tissue fluid that is collected into the lymphatic system

65
Q

How do the excess tissue fluid return to the blood?

A

Excess tissue fluid is returned to the blood via the lymphatic system (through lymph capillaries and then into main lymph vessels, where valves prevent the backflow of lymph)
The lymph returns to the blood in the thorax.

66
Q

Compare the differences between blood, tissue fluid and lymph

A

Blood is composed of:
Erythrocytes, White blood cells, platelets, water, dissolved solutes.

Tissue fluid is composed of:
Few White blood cells (only enter during infection), plasma proteins, water and dissolved solutes.
(Platelets only present is capillaries are damaged)

Lymph is composed of:
White blood cells, antibodies, water and dissolved solutes.

67
Q

Describe the adaptions that erythrocytes have to maximise oxygen transportation

A

-Biconcave shape provides a large surface area for the diffusion of gases
-No nuclei maximises the amount of haemoglobin that can fit into cells
-Haemoglobin is able to bind to four oxygen molecules

68
Q

Describe the structure of haemoglobin

A

Globular conjugated protein made up of four peptide chains, each with an iron containing prosthetic group.

69
Q

Describe how the partial pressure of oxygen affects the saturation of haemoglobin

A

When erythrocytes enter the capillaries a steep concentration gradient of oxygen is maintained between the cells and alveoli. Therefore, at higher partial pressures of oxygen, oxygen moves into erythrocytes and loads onto haemoglobin forming oxyhaemoglobin.
Cooperative binding means that as soon as one oxygen molecule binds to a haem group, the molecule then changes shape making it easier for the next oxygen molecule to bind.

However, at lower partial pressure of oxygen, when the concentration of oxygen in respiring cells is lower than in the erythrocytes, oxygen is unloaded from the oxyhaemoglobin. Cooperative binding occurs again helping to remove the remaining oxygen molecules.

70
Q

What is an oxygen dissociation curve?

A

Shows how saturated the haemoglobin is with oxygen at any given partial pressures.

71
Q

Describe and explain the shape of the oxygen dissociation curve

A

The graph is ‘S-shaped’.
When partial pressures of oxygen are low, haemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen. Therefore, haemoglobin releases oxygen and will have a low saturation of oxygen.

When Hb combines with the first oxygen molecule, it changes shape so more oxygen can bind easily.
This is shown by the steep increase.
The graph then becomes shallower as the saturation of Hb increases, this makes it harder for more oxygen molecules to join.

Finally, at higher partial pressures of oxygen haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen so oxygen saturation will be at its greatest.

72
Q

What is the Bohr effect?

A

When the partial pressure of Carbon dioxide increase, the oxygen dissociation curve shifts to the right showing that more oxygen is unloaded from haemoglobin.

73
Q

What is the importance of the Bohr effect?

A

In active tissues with a high partial pressure of Carbon dioxide, haemoglobin gives up its oxygen more readily
In the lungs where partial pressure of Carbon dioxide is low, oxygen bind to haemoglobin more easily.

74
Q

Describe how the oxygen dissociation curve changes with fetal haemoglobin

A

The curve shifts to the left as the fetal haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen at the same partial pressure.

75
Q

Why does the fetal haemoglobin have a higher affinity for oxygen?

A

This is because by the time the mothers blood reaches the placenta, its oxygen saturation has decreased because some has been used up by the mothers body.
Therefore, the fetal haemoglobin needs to have a higher affinity for oxygen in order to have sufficient oxygen to survive.
If fetal haemoglobin has the same affinity for oxygen as adult haemoglobin then its blood would not be saturated enough.

76
Q

Describe the process for transporting Carbon dioxide using haemoglobin

A

-Carbon dioxide diffuses into the Red blood cells
-Carbon dioxide will react with water to form carbonic acid H2CO3- this is catalysed by the presence of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase
-Carbonic acid will then dissociate into H+ ions and Hydrogen carbonate ions -HCO3-
-The negatively charged Hydrogen carbonate ions move out of the erythrocytes into the plasma down a concentration gradient
-In order to counteract the balance of charges, the negatively charged Cl- ions move back into the erythrocytes, known as Chloride shift
-The free H+ ions is removed by haemoglobin which acts as a buffer preventing a change in pH forming haemoglobinic acid.

When blood reaches lung tissue where there is a low concentration of carbon dioxide, the reverse reaction is catalysed.

77
Q

Explain why carbon dioxide is removed and converted for transportation in red blood cells

A

Carbon dioxide is removed and converted into Hydrogen carbonate ions as this maintains a steep concentration gradient for carbon dioxide to diffuse from respiring tissues into erythrocytes.

78
Q

What type of muscle does the heart have?

A

Cardiac muscle
This muscle does not get fatigued

79
Q

What are the different processes of the cardiac cycle?

A

Atrioventricular systole
Ventricular systole
Diastole

80
Q

Why does the left side of the heart have a thicker muscle?

A

This is because the left side has to provide sufficient force to overcome the resistance of the aorta and the arterial systems of the whole body in order to move blood at higher pressures around the rest of the body.

81
Q

Describe the process that maintains the basic rhythm of the heart

A
  • A wave of electrical excitation starts at the SAN causing the atria to contract and initiating the heartbeat.
    A layer of non conducting collagen tissue prevents the excitation from passing to the ventricles
    -The electrical excitation is sent to the AVN, which poses a slight delay (ensures the atria have stopped contracting before ventricles start) before stimulating the Bundle of His (made up of conductive Purkyne fibres) through the septum.
    -The bundle of His conducts the wave of excitation to the apex of the heart
    -At the apex of the heart, the Purkyne fibres spread through the ventricular walls, triggering the contraction of ventricles at the apex.
82
Q

Demonstrate a flow chart to show the main components of the heart that maintain the basic rhythm of the heart

A

SAN—-> AVN (slight delay)
—-> stimulates Bundle of His (made up of conductive Purkyne fibres
—> at the Apex of the heart Purkyne fibres spread out to walls of ventricles
—> triggers the contraction of of the ventricles starting at the apex.

—> represents wave of excitation

83
Q

What is an Electrocardiogram?

A

Records the electrical activity of the heart by measuring the spread of electrical excitation .

84
Q

Describe how a normal Electrocardiogram should look

A

Beats evenly spaced, rate 60-100 bpm

85
Q

What are the types of abnormal heart rhythm?

A

Tachycardia
Bradycardia
Arterial fibrillation
Ectopic Heartbeat

86
Q

Describe how the electrocardiogram represents Tachycardia

A

Rapid heartbeat, over 100bpm during rest.
Beats evenly spaced.

87
Q

Describe how an electrocardiogram represents Bradycardia

A

Slow heartbeat, less than 60bpm at rest
Beats are evenly spaced

88
Q

Describe how an electrocardiogram represents an Ectopic heartbeat

A

There are extra heartbeats that are not in the usual rhythm.
An extra beat followed by a longer than normal gap before the next regular beat.

89
Q

Describe how an electrocardiogram can represent arterial fibrillation

A

Irregular rhythm of the heart
Represented by an abnormal rhythm from the atria, the ventricles lose their regular rhythm.

Biology Module 3 Exchange And Transport (5 decks)

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