Chapter 8: Trait Aspects of Personality

Question 1

Define:

trait approach

Answer 1

The use of a basic, limited set of adjectives or adjective dimensions to describe and scale individuals.

Question 2

What was Hippocrates’ approach to analyzing traits?

8.1 The History of Trait Approaches

Answer 2

He described human temperaments in terms of bolidy humors: sanguine (blood), melancholic (black bile), choleric (yellow bile), and phlegmatic (phlegm).

• The dominance of a humour determined typical reaction patterns. The sanguine was cheerful, the melancholic depressive, the choleric angry, and the phlegmatic apathetic.
• Although this idea is biologically groundless, it did well in describing basic reaction patterns.

Question 3

What were Theophrastus’s character sketches?

8.1 The History of Trait Approaches

Answer 3

These are brief descriptions of a type of person that can be recognized across time and place (e.g. the buffoon).

Question 4

How did Charles Darwin influence the development of trait analysis?

8.1 The History of Trait Approaches

Answer 4

After Darwin introduced his theory of natural selection, individual differences became a hot topic to study. The idea was that consistencies could be found in the psychobiological characteristics of a person.

Question 5

What are extroversion and introversion according to Carl Jung?

8.1.1 Jung’s Extroversion and Introversion

Answer 5

Extroversion refers to an orientation toward things outside onself, whereas introversion is a tendency to turn inward and explore one’s feelings and experiences.

Question 6

What is factor analysis and how did R.B. Cattell use it to contribute to personality psychology?

8.1.2 The Use of Statistics

Answer 6

• Factor analysis allows us to summarize correlation coefficiants. Variables that are correlated with each other but not with other variables form a dimension, or factor. Factor analysis thus helps us reduce or eliminate redundant information in a list of personality descriptors.
• Cattel started from Allport’s list of 18,00 and derived a list of nonsynonymous adjectives that refer to personality. People were rated on these characteristics and the findings combined with factor analysis.

Question 7

What are Q-data, T-data, and L-data?

8.1.3 Q-data, T-data, L-data, and the 16PF

Answer 7

• Q-data is the name Cattell gave to data that are gathered from self-reports and questionnaires.
• T-data are collected by placing a person into a controlled testing situation; these data are observational.
• L-data consists of information gathered about a person’s life, such as school records.

Question 8

What are:

traits

8.2 Gordon Allport’s Trait Psychology

Answer 8

According to Allport, these were the constant, core behaviours of an individual through different times, situations, and ages.

Question 9

What are interactionist approaches to personality?

8.2 Gordon Allport’s Trait Psychology

Answer 9

These approaches study person-by-situation interactions. According to Allport, personality is deeply rooted within the person, and each individual has unique, key qualities. These qualities also interact with the environment.

Question 10

What is Allport’s definition of personality?

8.2 Gordon Allport’s Trait Psychology

Answer 10

The dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine characteristic behavior and thought.

Question 11

How did Allport apply culture to the trait perspective?

8.2.1 The Importance of Culture

Answer 11

• He emphasized that people don’t generally confuse Vietnamese people with Venetians as culture provides people with recipes of life. Thus, he asked to what extent people change their traits when they immigrate.
• He did applied work on the study of racism towards blacks and Nazis towards Jews.

Question 12

What were Allport’s problems with Cattell’s factor analysis?

8.2.2 Functional Equivalence

Answer 12

• Factor analysis can’t fully depict the life of an individual since it’s only a statistic.
• Factor analysis merely produces clusters but doesn’t name them, and there’s also the question of whether any name can do justice to a certain cluster.

Question 13

What did Allport mean by functional equivalence?

8.2.2 Functional Equivalence

Answer 13

In Allport’s words, traits render many stimuli functionally equivalent and can guide equivalent forms of expressive behaviour. For example, a superpatriot may view socialists, Jews, the UN, etc. to be despised and scorned; they’re seen as equivalent by this extremist. This person may deliver hate speeches and join lynch mobs; these are equivalent behaviours. These consistencies form the basis for Allport’s conception of personality.

Question 14

What are:

common traits

8.2.3 Common Traits

Answer 14

The traits that people in a population share; they’re basic dimensions.

Question 15

What is:

functional autonomy

8.2.3 Common Traits

Answer 15

When people become independent of their origins in childhood.

• Allport thought that an individual’s motivations could have its origins in the childhood socialization of instinctual tendencies. However, in adulthood these motives or strivings take on a life of their own.
• Thus, sometimes, it’s not appropriate to try and trace behaviours back to childhood.

Question 16

What is:

proprium

8.2.3 Common Traits

Answer 16

This term was used by Allport to refer to the core of the personality. (It means “one’s own.”) That is, there are layers within the human psyche, including an irreducible core that defines who we are.

Question 17

What is a:

nuclear quality

8.2.4 Personal Dispositions

Answer 17

A person’s disposition in terms of their goals, motives, or styles.

• However, this didn’t allow Allport to study people’s commonalities, and thus he turned to personal disposition.

Question 18

Define:

personal disposition

8.2.4 Personal Dispositions

Answer 18

A trait—a generalized neuropsychic structure—that’s particular to the individual.

Question 19

Define:

cardinal disposition

8.2.4 Personal Dispositions

Answer 19

Personal dispositions that exert an overwhelming influence on behaviour.

Question 20

What is a:

central disposition

8.2.4 Personal Dispositions

Answer 20

A fundamental quality that can succinctly portray an individual.

• These types of qualities are what professors would be likely to talk about in a reccomendation letter.
• Personality is usually revolved around this, versus cardinal dispositions.

Question 21

What is:

implicit personality theory

8.3.1 How Was the Big Five Model Developed?

Answer 21

A type of biasing tendency wherein we see things that aren’t really there. That is, we may tend to see people in terms of five dimensions of personality, but these dimensions may not actually exist.

Question 22

Do the Big Five personality traits actually exist?

8.3.1 How Was the Big Five Model Developed?

Answer 22

• There are two problems with how the Big Five traits were gathered through factor analysis and observer ratings: (1) the implicit personality theory and (2) not seeing things that really are there.
• In order to get past this, behavioural geneticists have determined that basic trait dimensions do exist. The number of them is uncertain, but there are biologically grounded basic dimensions.
• For example, regardless of whether extroversion is understood in terms of a responsitivty of the nervous system, a developed pattern of behaviour, or a genetically programmed orientation, there’s still value to seeing this construct as real in a biological sense.

Question 23

What has cross-cultural research shown us about the Big Five?

8.3.1 How Was the Big Five Model Developed?

Answer 23

• Cross-cultural research among people of different ages and education levels has been able to produce the same five factors.
• However, some studies in non-English-speaking countries have found different dimensions such as spirituality and honesty-humility.
• In studies of hunter-gatherer-type societies that are largely illiterate, the five factors couldn’t be reproduced at all. However, these people did still have words in their language used to describe individual differences in terms of morality and competence.
• These studies also warn about uncritical uses of the Big Five, as different cultures may value different dimensions very differently.
• Studies have also shown sub-cultures that exist in states or cities. For example, cities high on being intellectual are places like LA and San Francisco, while other cities are big on “heart” such as Miami. This may be because certain cities attract individuals with certain personalities, and the people in these cities will influence the behaviours of one another to some extent.

Question 24

Do the Big Five factors have useful applications in understanding people’s career paths?

8.3.2 Career Pathways and Other Important Outcomes

Answer 24

• Certain traits can predict the success of individuals in certain jobs. For example, people in Extroversion would be good at being politicians or high-visibility leaders with their boldness, energy, and ambition. People high in Agreeableness are likely to be altruistic, and therefore may run nonprofit organizations or be good moms and dads.
• Many times, it’s helpful to understand combinations of personality traits to best predict outcomes. For example, people low on Conscientiousness and high on Neuroticism are more likely to smoke and be unhealthy.

Question 25

Are five dimensions enough for summarizing common traits?

8.3.3 More Than Five? Fewer Than Five?

Answer 25

• Using Allport’s idiographic approach, more than five trait dimensions would be needed. But the Big Five are nomothetic, i.e. meant to be used when the same dimensions are applied across individuals.
• However, currently there’s no compelling and comprehensive theory that explains why five dimensions are sufficient to capture what we need to compare and contrast individuals.
• Such a theory may require that we find five kinds of biological responses in the brain, or result from analysis of evolutionary pressures that forced us to cooperate (Agreeableness) and be good leaders (Extroversion).
• Cattell strongly maintained that 16 general personality factors are essential. He also urged for analysis of changes in personality over time.
• Even proponents of the Big Five turn to additional trait descriptors, called facets, when describing personality fully.

Question 26

Why did Eysenck believe that there were less than five basic dimensions of personality?

8.3.4 Eysenck’s Big Three and Related Alternatives

Answer 26

He relied on his three-pronged biological model of nervous system temperament. He proposed that all traits derive from three biological systems. Eysenck believed that other evidence, outside factor analysis, should guide the selection of factors. For example, there’s evidence that people’s tendencies on several characteristics (e.g. anxiety level, friendliness, etc.) maintain fairly stable throughout adult life. (i.e. If you’re friendly at 25 you probably won’t be very crotchety at 60.) But people do tend to be more conscientious and agreeable as the age.

Question 27

What were Eysenck’s three dimensions of personality?

8.3.4 Eysenck’s Big Three and Related Alternatives

Answer 27

1. Extroversion, which includes Cattell’s outgoingness and assertiveness.
2. Neuroticism, which includes Cattell’s emotional instability and apprehensiveness.
3. Psychoticism, which is the tendency toward psychopathology, involving impulsivity and cruelty. It includes Cattell’s tough-mindedness and shrewdness.

This approach is one of the few to take into account the biological bases of personality (what Allport termed its “psychophysical” aspects).

Question 28

What is the evidence for Eysenck’s approach?

8.3.5 Evidence for Eysenck’s Approach

Answer 28

• One study examined self-reported traits and found that people who were sensitive to signals of punishment were high on neuroticism, and people sensitive to signals of reward were high on extroversion.
• Another study had introverts and extroverts rate the pleasantness of social situations and found that extroverts rated social situations more positively than introverts only when the situations were pleasant. This demonstrates how extroverts are more motivated by reward (pleasantness) than sociability itself.
• Another study of women using fMRIs to look at brain reactivity to pleasant images found that extroverts showed greater brain activity to positive than negative stimuli.
• Interestingly, recent studies have shown that extroversion is on the rise in American populations. A purely biological approach wouldn’t make sense, as the population isn’t currently facing any evolutionary pressures. This reminds us that we have to take multiple approaches into account when analyzing personality.

Question 29

How can we be sure of our accuracy in judging other people on personality dimensions?

8.4.1 Consensus in Personality Judgments

Answer 29

• If a group of strangers rates a group of people on a set of characteristics that are put through factor analysis, and seem to be analagous with the the factor analyses of the individuals themselves, then we can be sure that the observed factors aren’t being made up in the observer’s head.
• Additionally, if the factor analysis of the individual by a close friend is closer to the indivudal’s rating than the strangers’s, this would indicate valid judgements of personality rather than stereotyped judgements.
• There also seems to be consensus among observers at the zero acquiantance state, when you’ve never seen the other person before. This also demonstrates the reliability of personality.
• Ratings by spouses also end in the Big Five dimensions, adding another element of validity.

Question 30

What are some of the dangers of not being careful in how we use the idea of traits?

8.4.2 Limits of Trait Conceptions

Answer 30

• We might underestimate the role of other aspects of personality and the social situation.
• We might overlook the individual’s personal dispositions or the fact that basic personality dimensions do a better job of describing some individuals more than others.
• Trait conceptions contradict behaviourist and social learning approaches, which emphasize environmental causes.

Question 31

Do professional profilers at the FBI do a better job of understanding people?

8.4.2 Limits of Trait Conceptions

Answer 31

FBI profilers do very well in analysis of case files, but experienced police detectives and psychologists also do quite well. Only college students performed poorly at this task. This study suggests that experience in studying personality and motivation can lead to some documentable improvements and success, but there’s no one way to be good at profiling people.

Question 32

What are:

types

8.5 Types

Answer 32

This notion refers to the classification or categorization of people, the idea that there are discrete classes of people.

• The boundaries are not be clear-cut, as it refers to degrees. For example, nobody is completely extroverted or introverted.
• These theories may be useful in providing ideals or models of personality to which real people can be compared.
• Further research may indeed reveal certain dimensions that are clear-cut and in which people don’t fall along a continuum.

Question 33

What is a:

motive

8.6 Motives

Answer 33

An internal psychobiological force that helps induce particular behaviour patterns towards a goal. This concept captures the idea that there are forces within the human organism pushing for expression (e.g. need for food, play, pleasure, etc.).

Question 34

What is the Personality Research Form?

8.6.1 Measuring Motivation

Answer 34

Based on Henry Murray’s theories of needs, this self-report test assesses motives by forced response to short standardized items. In another self-report approach, personal goals are assessed by asking people to write about things that are at the focus or their daily efforts. Of course, this requires people to know something about their goals.

Question 35

What is the Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT)?

8.6.1 Measuring Motivation

Answer 35

A more subtle approach to measuring motivation, used by psychologists such as Atkinson, McClelland, and Winter. For example, a person might be presented with an ambiguous scene in which an attractive man is pushing a ahead of an attractive woman while entering a hotel. If a person views this scene as the man being in a rush to meet a client for an important sale, this would indicate high achievement motivation.

Question 36

What is the:

need for achievement (n Ach)

8.6.2 Motivation Approach to Traits

Answer 36

An individual’s drive to succeed on tasks that society sets out for them. Someone high in n Ach enjoys challenges and may have a lot of awards. However, they may be less successful at diplomacy or cooperation.

Question 37

What is the:

need for affiliation (n Aff)

8.6.2 Motivation Approach to Traits

Answer 37

The need to draw near to and win the affected of others. People with a high need for affiliation may be extroverted, agreeable, and conscientious. This motivational approach cuts across a five-factor approach.

Question 38

What is the:

need for power (n Power)

8.6.2 Motivation Approach to Traits

Answer 38

The need for dominance or control over others.

• Many people who are perceived as being high on n Ach might be high on n Power instead, and vice versa.
• An interesting study of the inaugural speeches of American presidents indicated that those scoring high on n Power were more likely to make important decisions that led to their being viewed as great presidents.

Question 39

What is the:

need for exhibition (n Exh)

8.6.2 Motivation Approach to Traits

Answer 39

The need for emotional communication. People high on this want to entertain and shock others. They are dramatic and showy. This dimension is usually studied through a focus on their expressive style.

Question 40

What is expressive style?

8.7 Expressive Style

Answer 40

Elements such as vocal characteristics, facial expressions, and body gestures and movements.

Question 41

How or why is expressive style related to personality?

8.7.1 Emotional Expressiveness

Answer 41

Expressive style is the emotional aspect of expressive behaviour (Allport’s temperament) that is the key to understanding its ties ot certian personality traits; i.e. an individual has typical ways of expressing and inhibiting certain feelings. Some of this consistency seems to be innate, but studies also suggest that personality traits developed in adulthood are more stable than temperament-based traits.

Question 42

What is the most significant dimension of style?

8.7.1 Emotional Expressiveness

Answer 42

• Overall expressiveness, a person’s intensity, animation, and dynamism in their verbal and nonverbal behaviours.
• This expressiveness can be measured in terms of whether or not you can pick up on a person’s emotions from their expressive behaviours, even when they’re not overtly doing anything.
• Expressive people are often perceived as more attractive. Studies suggest that expressiveness is just as important as physical attractiveness in influencing people’s judgements.
• Extroversion is the trait most visible in expressive style.

Question 43

What expressive behaviours are dominant people likely to display?

8.7.2 Dominance, Leadership, Influence

Answer 43

• These people are likely to sit higher, stand taller, talk louder, and invade the space of others. They also have more expansive gestures, such as sitting in the first row. They can interrupt more, control time, and stare at you more or less if they so choose.
• People who are leaders are generally more expressive because they know how to make themselves stand out without doing much, but will still have a strong impact on others.
• Expressive people are also more sensitive to nonverbal cues.

Question 44

How can the expressiveness of a person indicate their physical and mental health?

8.7.3 Expressiveness and Health

Answer 44

• Expressiveness involving fuild, outward-focussed gestures is a sign of health, whereas expressiveness involving clenched fists and explosive speech are signs of an unhealthy person.
• Unexpressiveness is not necessarily an indicator of an unhealthy personality if it manifests as being calm and reserved, but it can be unhealthy if it’s a sign of depression or repressed anxiety.
• Characteristic modes of emotional responding are likely biologically determined, while expressive responses are socialized during childhood, and the implications at this time can have dramatic effects. For example, take an inherently expressive child and put them in a setting where they’re expected to be “good,” i.e. reserved and obedient. This child is likely to have issues coping and struggle with self-esteem down the road.

Question 45

What does the study of nonverbal cues add to the concept of expressive styles?

8.7.3 Expressiveness and Health

Answer 45

1. It shifts the attention towards amotion, aspects of personality such as empathy and anger communication.
2. It also shifts away from internal traits and motives towards observable abilities. For example, instead of studying extroversion the focus may be on facial, bodily, and vocal expressiveness.
3. There’s also more focus on the ongoing process of social interaction, i.e. personality in the context of communication with others.