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CHM040: Biomolecules > Chapter 8: Metabolism > Flashcards

Chapter 8: Metabolism Flashcards

1
Q
  • all chemical reactions that take place in cells to break down or build molecules
A

metabolism

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2
Q
  • series of linked reactions, each catalyzed by a specific enzyme.
  • produce energy and cellular compounds
A

metabolic pathway

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3
Q

When we eat food, the _ ,_ , _ , are digested to smaller molecules that can be ___.

A

polysaccharides, lipids, and proteins; absorbed into the cells of our body.

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4
Q

Because we do not use all the energy from our foods at one time, we ___ as high-energy __.

A

store energy in the cells; adenosine
triphosphate, ATP.

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4
Q

. As the glucose, fatty acids, and amino
acids are broken down further, _

A

energy is released

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5
Q

ATP is later broken down obtain energy to do work in our bodies:

A
  • contracting muscles
  • synthesizing large molecules,
  • sending nerve impulses
  • moving substances across cell membranes.
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6
Q

use ATP energy to build larger molecules

A

anabolic reaction

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6
Q

break down large, complex molecules to
provide energy and smaller molecules

A

catabolic reactions

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7
Q

3 stages of metabolism

A
  1. digestion and hydrolysis
  2. degradation
  3. oxidation
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8
Q

break down large molecules to smaller ones that enter the bloodstream

A

digestion and hydrolysis

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9
Q

breaks down molecules to
two- and three-carbon compounds

A

degradation

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10
Q

is in the citric acid cycle and electron transport provide ATP energy (electrons are carried by NADH and FADH2)

A

oxidation

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11
Q

As long as the cells have oxygen, the hydrogen ions and electrons from the __ to synthesize ATP.

A

reduced coenzymes are transferred to electron transport

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12
Q

9 Cell structure

A

Plasma Membrane
Mitochondria
Rough Endoplasmic reticulum
Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum
ribosomes
lysosomes
golgi complex
nucleus
cytoplasm

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13
Q

Is the energy form stored in cells.
▪ Is obtained from the oxidation of food

A

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

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14
Q

Structure of ATP:

A

Adenine (nitrogen base)
ribose sugar
three phosphate groups

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15
Q

Requirement of ATP to be oxidized:

A

7.3 kcal/mol (31 kJ/mol)

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16
Q

3 phosphate groups

A

AMP
ADP
ATP

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17
Q

The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP releases 7.3 kcal (31 kJ)/mole

A

ADP + Pi + 7.3 kcal/mol (31 kJ/mol

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18
Q

hydrolysis of ADP to AMP releases 7.3 kcal (31 kJ)/mole.

A

AMP + Pi + 7.3 kcal/mol (31 kJ/mol)

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19
Q

ATP links ___ with ___ in the cells

A

energy-producing reax ; energy requiring reax

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19
Q

What has low energy bond?

A

phosphate ester bond in first p group

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19
Q

What has high energy bond

A

phospho-anhydride bonds in ADP and ATP

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20
Q

ATP or ADP + Pi: used in anabolic reaction

A

ATP

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21
Q

ATP or ADP + Pi: energy-storage molecule

A

ATP

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22
Q

ATP or ADP + Pi: coupled withe nergy-requiring reactions

A

ATP

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22
Q

ATP or ADP + Pi: hydrolysis products

A

ADP

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23
Q

Several metabolic reactions that extract energy from our food what reactions?

A

REDOX

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24
Q

associated with the loss of H atoms

A

oxidation

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25
Q

associated with the gain of H atoms

A

reduction

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26
Q

required to carry the hydrogen ions and electrons from or to the reacting substrate.

A

coenzymes

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27
Q

oxidation

A

loss of e-
loss of H+
gain of oxygen
release of energy

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28
Q

reduction

A

gain of e-
gain of H+
loss of oxygen
input of energy

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29
Q

Three coenzymes

A

NAD+
FAD+
Acetyl CoA

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30
Q

Participates in reactions that produce a carbon-oxygen double bond (C=O)
▪ Is reduced when an oxidation provides 2H+ and 2e-

A

NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)

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31
Q

Oxidation of NAD+

A

CH3—CH2—OH to CH3—C (=O) —H + 2H+ + 2e

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32
Q

Reduction of NAD+

A

NAD+ + 2H+ + 2e- NADH + H+

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33
Q

Structure of NAD+

A

Contains ADP, ribose, and nicotinamide.
Reduces to NADH when the
nicotinamide group accepts H+ and 2e-
.

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34
Q

Participates in reactions that produce a carbon-carbon double bond (C=C).
▪ Is reduced to FADH2

A

FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide)

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35
Q

ox of FAD

A

—CH2—CH2— —CH=CH— + 2H+ + 2e

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36
Q

red of FAD

A

FAD + 2H+ + 2e- FADH2

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37
Q

structure of FAD

A

Contains ADP and riboflavin (vitamin B2).
= undergoes reduction when the 2 nitrogens in the flavin part react with two hydrogen atoms (2H+ + 2e-)

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38
Q

Consists of pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), phosphorylated ADP, and aminoethanethiol
= activates acyl groups such as the two-carbon acetyl group for transfer.

A

Coenzyme A

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38
Q

The reactive feature of coenzyme A ___ , which bonds to a two-carbon acetyl group to produce ___

A

thiol group (-SH); energy-rich thioester acetyl CoA

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38
Q

Structure of CoA

A

pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), phosphorylated ADP, and aminoethanethiol

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38
Q

MT: Coenzyme used in oxidation of carbon-oxygen
bonds.

A

NAD+

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38
Q

MT: Reduced form of flavin adenine dinucleotide

A

FADH2

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38
Q

MT: Used to transfer acetyl groups

A

CoA

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38
Q

MT: Contains riboflavin

A

FAD, FADH

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38
Q

MT: The coenzyme after C=O bond formation

A

NADH + H+

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38
Q

2 STAGES OF DIGESTION OF CARBS

A

Stage 1, the digestion of carbohydrates
Stage 2: Glycolysis

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38
Q

Stage 1:

A

Mouth where salivary amylase breaks down
Small intestine where pancreatic amylase hydrolyzes
hydrolyzes MAL, LAC, SUC to glucose which enters bloodstream to transport to the cells

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38
Q

enzymes produced in
the mucosal cells that
line the small intestine

A

maltase
lactase
sucrase

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39
Q

The bloodstream carries the monosaccharides to the liver, where __

A

fructose and galactose are converted to glucose

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39
Q

Glycolysis

A

uses glucose for metabolic pathway
degrades glucose to pyruvate
an anaerobic process

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39
Q

Energy is required to add phosphate groups to glucose.
Glucose is converted to two three-carbon molecules.

A

Reaction 1-5

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39
Q

Reaction 1-5 Products

A

Glucose
Glusose-6-phosphate
Fructose-6-Phosphate
Fructose-1,6-biphosphate
dihydroxyacetone phosphate
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

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39
Q

Reaction 1-5 Enzymes

A

hexokinase
phosphoglucoisomerase
phosphofructokinase
fructose-1,6-biphosphate aldolase
triosephosphate isomerase

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39
Q

Aldol reaction

A

fructose-1,6-biphosphate to DHAP and G3P; cofactors: Mn; Mg

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39
Q

Sugar phosphates are cleaved to triose phosphates.
▪ Four ATP molecules are produced

A

reax 6-10

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39
Q

Reaction 6-10 products

A

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
1,3-Biphosphoglycerate
3-phosphoglycerate
2-phosphoglycerate
phosphoenolpyruvate
pyruvate

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40
Q

Reaction 6-10 enzymes

A

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate-dehydrogenase
phosphoglycerate kinase
phosphoglycerate mutase
enolase
pyruvate kinase

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41
Q

What happens in reax 6?

A

2 NAD+ was oxidized to 2NADH + 2H+

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41
Q

What happens in reax 7?

A

2 ATP was released

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41
Q

What happened in reax 9?

A

H2O was released

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42
Q

What happened in reax 10?

A

2 ATP was released

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43
Q

Processes reax 1-10

A
  1. phosphorylation: 1st ATP
  2. Isomerization
  3. Phosphorylation: 2nd ATP
  4. cleavage: 2 trioses formed
  5. isomerization of triose
  6. First energy production yields NADH
  7. Next energy production yields 2 ATP
  8. Formation of 2-phosphoglycerate
  9. Removal of water makes a high-energy enol
  10. Third energy production yields a second ATP (2)
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44
Q

In glycolysis, what happened to steps 1 and 3?

A

2 ATP add phosphate to glucose and fructose eme

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44
Q

In glycolysis, what happened to steps 7 and 10?

A

Four ATP are formed in energy-generation by direct transfers of phosphate groups to four ADP

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45
Q

Glycolysis net gain

A

ATP and 2 NADH

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46
Q

overall equation of glycolysis:

A

glucose + 2NAD+2ADP + 2Pi = 2 Py + 2NADH +2 ATP + 2ATP + 2H+ + 2H2O

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47
Q

Key regulatory steps

A

hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and
pyruvate kinase (1,3,10)

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48
Q

Glycolysis is regulated by three enzymes, Reaction 1

A

Hexokinase is inhibited by high levels of
glucose-6-phosphate, which prevents the
phosphorylation of glucose.

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49
Q

Glycolysis is regulated by three enzymes, Reaction 3

A

Phosphofructokinase, an allosteric
enzyme, is inhibited by high levels of ATP and activated by high levels of ADP and AMP. If cells have plenty of ATP, glycolysis slows down

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50
Q

Glycolysis is regulated by three enzymes, Reaction 10

A

Pyruvate kinase, another allosteric
enzyme is inhibited by high levels of ATP or acetyl CoA

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50
Q

in glycolysis, what compounds provide phosphate groups for the production of ATP?

A

In reaction 7, phosphate groups from two 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate molecules are transferred to ADP to form two ATP.
In reaction 10, phosphate groups from two phosphoenolpyruvate molecules are used to form two more ATP

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51
Q

fructose

A

In the muscles, it is converted to fructose-6-phosphate, entering glycolysis at step 3. In the liver, it is converted to the trioses used in step 5.

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52
Q

Fructose uptake by the cells is not __: all fructose in the _

A

regulated by insulin; bloodstream is forced into catabolism.

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53
Q

The triose products created in the liver ___ that, if not required for energy by the cells, __

A

provide an excess of reactants that create excess pyruvate and acetyl CoA ; is converted to fat

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53
Q

Pyruvate: Under aerobic conditions (oxygen present),

A

▪ Three-carbon pyruvate is decarboxylated.
▪ Two-carbon acetyl CoA and CO2 are produced.
▪ Occurs in the mitochondria

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53
Q

Pyruvate is converted __ under aerobic conditions ___. The NADH is oxidized ___

A

to acetyl CoA and NADH; when oxygen is plentiful; back to NAD+ to allow glycolysis to continue.

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53
Q

Pyruvate under anaerobic conditions (without oxygen),

A

Pyruvate is reduced to lactate.
▪ NAD+ is produced and is used to oxidize more glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate in the glycolysis pathway, which produces a small but needed amount of ATP.
▪ Occurs in the cytosol

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53
Q

lactate in muscles: during strenous exercise:

A

Oxygen in the muscles is depleted.
▪ Anaerobic conditions are produced.
▪ Lactate accumulates.
▪ Muscles tire and become painful.

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53
Q

After exercise, a person breathes heavily to: ???????????

A

to repay the oxygen debt and reform pyruvate in the liver (lactate is transported to the liver).

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54
Q

Occurs in anaerobic microorganisms such as yeast.
▪ Regenerates NAD+ to continue glycolysis.

A

fermentation

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54
Q

what is decarboxylated in fermentation?

A

pyruvate to acetaldehyde, which is reduced to ethanol

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54
Q

The first step in conversion of pyruvate to ethanol

A

a decarboxylation reaction to produce acetaldehyde.

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55
Q

The second step in fermentation

A

involves acetaldehyde reduction to produce ethanol

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55
Q

Produced during anaerobic conditions

A

lactate

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55
Q

Reaction series that converts glucose to
pyruvate.

A

glycolysis

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55
Q

Metabolic reactions that break down large molecules to smaller molecules + energy.

A

catabolic reaction

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55
Q

Substances that remove or add H atoms in oxidation and reduction reactions.

A

coenzymes

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55
Q

Operates under aerobic conditions only.
▪ Oxidizes the two-carbon acetyl group in acetyl CoA to 2CO2
▪ Produces reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH2 and one ATP directly.

A

citric acid cycle

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55
Q

(3) What happens in citric acid cycle?

A

Acetyl (2C) bonds to oxaloacetate (4C) to
form citrate (6C).
▪ Oxidation and decarboxylation
reactions convert citrate to oxaloacetate.
▪ Oxaloacetate bonds with another acetyl to repeat the cycle.

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56
Q

KREBS: Processes

A

1: Formation of Citrate Condensation
2: Isomerization to Isocitrate
3: oxidative decarboxylation
4: oxidative decarboxylation
5: phosphorylation / hydrolysis
6: oxidation / dehydrogenation
7: hydration
8: oxidation / dehydrogenation

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56
Q

KREBS: PRODUCT

A

Acetyl CoA
Citrate
Isocitrate
a-keto
succinyl CoA
succinate
furamate
malate
oxaloacetate

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56
Q

KREBS: Enzymes

A

Citrate Synthase
Aconitase
Isocitrate Dehydrogenase
a-ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase
Succinyl COA Synthase
Succinic Dehydrogenase
Fumarase
Malate Dehydrogenase
SO AT DISCO, DEVIL SLIPPED DOWN FIVE DRINKS

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56
Q

Combines with the two-carbon acetyl group to form citrate.

A

oxaloacetate

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56
Q

Isomerizes to isocitrate.
▪ Has a tertiary —OH group converted to a secondary —OH in isocitrate that can be oxidized.

A

citrate

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56
Q

Undergoes decarboxylation (carbon removed as CO2).
▪ Oxidizes the —OH to a ketone releasing H+ and 2e−.
▪ Provides H to reduce coenzyme NAD+
to NADH.

A

isocitrate

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56
Q

▪ Undergoes decarboxylation to form succinyl CoA.
▪ Produces a 4-carbon compound that bonds to CoA.
▪ Provides H+ and 2e−
to reduce NAD+
to NADH.

A

a-ketoglutarate

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56
Q

Undergoes breaking of the thioester bond.
▪ Provides energy to add phosphate to GDP and form GTP, a high energy compound.

A

Succinyl CoA

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56
Q

Undergoes dehydrogenation.
▪ Loses two H and forms a double bond.
▪ Provides 2H to reduce FAD to FADH2

A

succinate

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57
Q

Undergoes hydration.
▪ Adds water to the double bond.
▪ Is converted to malate.

A

fumarate

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57
Q

Undergoes dehydrogenation.
▪ Forms oxaloacetate with a C=O double bond.
▪ Provides 2H that reduce NAD+
to NADH + H+

A

malate

57
Q

KREBS PRODUCTS

A

3: Remove (2) CO2
3: produces 3 ATP
3-4: reduce NAD+ to NADH
4: produces 3 ATP
5: GDP +Pi to GTP; releasing 1 ATP
6: FAD to FADH; having 2 ATP
8: NAD+ to NADH + H+; having 3 ATP

58
Q

Summary of CAC

A
  1. An acetyl group bonds with oxaloacetate to form citrate.
  2. Two decarboxylations remove two carbons as 2CO2
  3. Four oxidations provide hydrogen for three (3) NADH and one (1) FADH2
  4. A direct phosphorylation forms GTP (ATP).
58
Q

OVERALL CHEM REAX

A

acetyl-CoA + 3NAD+ + FAD + GDP + Pi + 2H2O
to
2CO2 + 3NADH + 3H+ + FADH2 + HS-CoA + GTP

58
Q

In 1 turn of CAC produces:

A

2 CO2
1 GTP (1ATP)
3 NADH
1 HS-CoA
1 FADH2

58
Q

The reaction rate for
the citric acid cycle increases when ?

A

low levels of ATP or NAD+ activate isocitrate dehydrogenase.

59
Q

The reaction rate for the citric acid cycle decreases when ?

A

high levels of ATP or NADH inhibit citrate synthetase (first step in cycle).

59
Q

Regulation of CAC: Pyruvate dehydrogenase

A

activated by: ADP
inhibited by: NADH; ATP

59
Q

Regulation of CAC: Isocitrate

A

activated by: ADP
inhibited by: NADH; ATP

59
Q

Regulation of CAC: a-Ketoglutarate

A

activated by: ADP
inhibited by: Succinyl CoA; NADH

59
Q

oxidized and reduced as hydrogen and/or electrons are transferred from one carrier to the next.

A

Electron Carriers

59
Q

Electron Carriers (4)

A

FMN
Fe-S clusters
Coenzyme Q
cytochromes

60
Q

▪ Accept hydrogen and electrons from the reduced coenzymes.
▪ Are oxidized and reduced to provide
energy for the synthesis of ATP.

A

Electron Carriers

60
Q

Contains flavin, ribitol,and phosphate. Accepts 2H+ + 2e to form reduced
coenzyme FMNH2.

A

Flavin Mononucleotide

60
Q

▪ Are groups of proteins containing iron ions and sulfide.
▪ Accept electrons to reduce Fe3+ to Fe2+, and lose electrons to re-oxidize Fe2+ to Fe3+

A

Iron-Sulfur (Fe-S) Clusters

60
Q

A mobile electron carrier derived from quinone.
▪ Reduced when the keto groups accept 2H+ and 2e-

A

Coenzyme Q or CoQ

61
Q

Proteins containing
heme groups with
iron ions. Fe3+ + 1e- Fe2+

A

Cytochromes

61
Q

Cytochromes abbreviations

A

cyt a
cyt a3
cyt b
cyt c
cyt c1

61
Q

Reduced form of coenzyme Q.

A

CoQH2 or QH2

62
Q

Oxidized form of flavin mononucleotide

A

FMN

62
Q

Reduced form of cytochrome c

A

Cyt c (Fe2+)

62
Q

Inidications of exponent in REDOX of electron carriers:

A

increase: oxidized
decreased: reduced

62
Q

Where does ATP synthase happen?

A

in mitochondrion matrix

62
Q

Uses electron carriers.
▪ Transfers hydrogen ions and electrons from NADH and FADH2 until they combine with oxygen.
▪ Forms H2O.
▪ Produces ATP energy

A

Electron Transport

63
Q

The electron carriers are attached to the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.

A

Electron transport system

64
Q

4 protein complexes

A

Complex I NADH dehydrogenase
Complex II Succinate dehydrogenase
Complex III CoQ-Cytochrome c reductase
Complex IV Cytochrome c oxidase

64
Q

Complex 1

A

NADH dehydrogenase

64
Q

Complex II

A

Succinate dehydrogenase

64
Q

Complex III

A

CoQ-Cytochrome c reductase

64
Q

Complex IV

A

Cytochrome c oxidase

64
Q

Where does electron transport chain happen?

A

inner mitochondrial membrane

64
Q

ETC From High energy to Low Energy

A

NADH (to NAD+, releasing ATP)
FMN
Q (binded to FADH2, to FAD)
Cyt b (releasing ATP)
cyt c1
cyt c
cyt a (releasing ATP)
cyt a3
O2 + 4H+ = 2 H2O

64
Q

Complex I

A
  1. Hydrogen and electrons are transferred from NADH to FMN.
  2. FMNH2 transfers hydrogen to Fe-S clusters and then to coenzyme Q reducing Q and regenerating FMN.
65
Q

Overall reaction of Complex 1:

A

NADH + H+ + Q QH2 + NAD+

65
Q

a mobile carrier, transfers hydrogen to
Complex III

A

QH2

65
Q

At Complex II, with a lower energy level than Complex I,

A
  1. FADH2 transfers hydrogen and electrons to coenzyme Q.
  2. Q is reduced to QH2 and FAD is regenerated.
65
Q

What happens at Complex III

A
  1. Electrons are transferred from QH2 to two Cyt b.
  2. Each Cyt b (Fe3+) is reduced to Cyt b (Fe2+).
  3. Q is regenerated.
  4. Electrons are transferred from Cyt b to Fe-S clusters, to Cyt c1, and to Cyt c, the second mobile carrier.
65
Q

At Complex IV, electrons are transferred from:

A

Cyt c to Cyt a
Cyt a to Cyt a3
Cyt a3 to oxygen and H+ to form water

65
Q

Accepts H and electrons from NADH + H+

A

FMN

65
Q

A mobile carrier between Complex II and III

A

Cyt c

65
Q

Carries electrons from Complex I and II to Complex III

A

Q

65
Q

Accepts H and electrons from FADH2

A

Q

66
Q

CO2 is product of

A

CAC

66
Q

FADH2 is product of

A

CAC

66
Q

NAD+ is product of

A

ETC

66
Q

NADH is product of

A

CAC

66
Q

H20 is product of

A

ETC

66
Q

in chemiosmotic model, Complexes I, III, and IV pump protons into the
intermembrane space ___

A

creating a proton gradient

66
Q

The flow of protons through ATP synthase provides ___?

A

the energy of ATP synthesis (oxidative phosphorylation)

66
Q

ATP Synthesis (oxidative phosphorylation)

A

ADP + Pi + Energy –> ATP

67
Q

ATP Synthase: Protons flow back to
the matrix through a channel in the

A

F0 complex (high potential)

67
Q

ATP Synthase: Proton flow provides the energy that drives ATP synthesis by the

A

F1 complex (low potential)

67
Q

Composition of F1 complex of ATP synthase:

A
  • center subunit (y)
    -surrounded by 3 protein subunits:
    Loose (L)
    Tight (T)
    Open (O)
67
Q

Process of ATP synthesis in F1:

A
  1. ADP and Pi enter the loose L site.
  2. The center subunit turns changing the L site to a tight T conformation.
  3. ATP is formed in the T site where it remains strongly bound.
  4. The center subunit turns changing the T site to an open O site, which releases the ATP.
67
Q

Contains subunits for ATP synthesis

A

F1 Complex

67
Q

Contains the channel for proton flow

A

F0 Complex

67
Q

The subunit in F1 that binds ADP and Pi

A

L site

67
Q

The subunit in F1 that releases ATP

A

O site

68
Q

The subunit in F1 where ATP forms

A

T site

68
Q

In electron transport, the energy level decrease for electrons from NADH (Complex I)

A

NADH + 3ADP + 3Pi NAD+ + 3ATP

68
Q

In electron transport, the energy level decrease for electrons From FADH2
(Complex II)

A

FADH2 + 2ADP + 2Pi FAD + 2ATP

68
Q

The electron transport system is regulated by (2):

A
  1. Low levels of ADP, Pi, oxygen, and NADH that decrease electron transport activity.
  2. High levels of ADP that activate electron transport.
68
Q

The complete oxidation of glucose yields

A

6 CO2
6 H2O
32 ATP

68
Q

ATP from Glycolysis

A

Activation of glucose -2 ATP
Oxidation of 2 NADH 5 ATP
Direct ADP phosphorylation (two triose) 4 ATP

68
Q

Summary of ATP from Glycolysis

A

C6H12O6 2 pyruvate + 2H2O + 7 ATP

69
Q

ATP from 2 Pyruvate

A

2 Pyruvate 2 Acetyl CoA + 5 ATP

69
Q

From 2 Pyruvate, under aerobic conditions:

A

▪ 2 pyruvate are oxidized to 2 acetyl CoA and 2 NADH.
▪ 2 NADH enter electron transport to provide 5 ATP.

69
Q

ATP from CAC:

A

3 NADH x 2.5 ATP = 7.5 ATP
1 FADH2 x 1.5 ATP = 1.5 ATP
1 GTP x 1 ATP = 1 ATP
total: 10 ATP

69
Q

Summary of CAC

A

Acetyl CoA 2 CO2 + 10 ATP

69
Q

For two acetyl CoA from one glucose, two turns of the citric acid cycle produce:

A

2 Acetyl CoA 4 CO2 + 20 ATP

69
Q

ATP FORM CAC FINAL

A

Ox of 2 isocitrate (2NADH) 5 ATP
Ox of 2 a-ketoglutarate (2NADH) 5 ATP
(2GTP) 2 ATP
Ox of 2 succinate (2FADH2) 3 ATP
Ox of 2 malate (2NADH) 5 ATP

69
Q

Full summary of CAC mahibi na q di lansang

A

2Acetyl CoA —> 4CO2 + 2H2O + 20 ATP

70
Q

ATP overall final.jpeg

A

From glycolysis 7 ATP
From 2 pyruvate 5 ATP
From 2 acetyl CoA 20 ATP

70
Q

OVERALL ATP ORODUCTION FOR ONE GLUCOSE

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 36ADP + 36Pi
TO
6CO2 + 6H2O + 32 ATP

70
Q

Indicate the ATP yield for: complete oxidation of glucose

A

32 ATP

70
Q

Indicate the ATP yield for: FADH2

A

1.5 ATP

70
Q

Indicate the ATP yield for: Acetyl CoA in CAC

A

10 ATP

70
Q

Indicate the ATP yield for: NADH

A

2.5 ATP

70
Q

Indicate the ATP yield for: pyruvate decarboxylation

A

2.5 ATP

70
Q

break fat globules into smaller particles called micelles in the small intestine

A

bile salts

70
Q

hydrolyze ester bonds to form monoacylglycerols and fatty acids, which recombine in the intestinal lining.

A

pancreatic lipases

71
Q

Fatty acids bind with proteins forming __ to transport triacylglycerols to the cells of the heart, muscle, and adipose tissues

A

lipoproteins

71
Q

transport the triacylglycerols to the cells
of the heart, muscle, and adipose tissues.

A

chylomicrons

71
Q

When energy is needed in the cells, enzymes hydrolyze the triacylglycerols to:

A

yield glycerol and fatty acids

71
Q

Digestion of triacylglycerol in small intestine:

A

triacylglycerol —> (pancreatic lipase) monoacylglycerol + 2 fatty acids

71
Q

digestion in intestinal wall:

A

monoacylglycerol + 2 fatty acids —> triacylglycerols –> lipoproteins

71
Q

digestion in the cell:

A

glycerol + fatty acids

71
Q

chylomicrons then proceed to:

A

lymphatic system
blood stream
cells

71
Q

Breaks down triacylglycerols in adipose
tissue.
▪ Forms fatty acids and glycerol.
▪ Hydrolyzes fatty acid
initially from C1 or C3 of
the fat.

A

fat mobilization

71
Q

reaction in fat mobilization

A

triacylglycerols + 3 H2O —>
glycerol + 3 fatty acids

72
Q

Adds a phosphate from ATP to form glycerol-3-phosphate.
Undergoes oxidation of the –OH group to
dihydroxyacetone phosphate.

A

glycerol

72
Q

metabolism of glycerol reaction

A

Glycerol + ATP + NAD+ —->
dihydroxyacetone phosphate + ADP + NADH + H+

72
Q

Oxidation of glycerol

A

glycerol (glycerol kinase) –> glycerol-3-phosphate (glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase) –> dihydroxyacetone phosphate

glycolysis

72
Q

What is the function of bile salts in fat digestion?

A

Bile salts break down fat globules allowing pancreatic lipases to hydrolyze the triacylglycerol.

72
Q

Why are the triacylglycerols in the intestinal lining coated with proteins to form chylomicrons?

A

The proteins coat the triacylglycerols to make water soluble chylomicrons that move into the lymph and bloodstream.

72
Q

How is glycerol utilized?

A

Glycerol adds a phosphate and is oxidized to an intermediate of the glycolysis pathway.

72
Q

Allows the fatty acids in the cytosol to enter the mitochondria for oxidation.
▪ Combines a fatty acid with CoA to yield fatty acyl-CoA that combines with carnitine.

A

Fatty acid activation

72
Q

Fatty Acid Activation in Cytosol:

A

Fatty acid + CoA + ATP –> CoA + AMP + 2 Pi

72
Q

Fatty Acid Activation in IS:

A

fatty acyl – CoA + Carnitine –> Fatty acyl – carnitine

72
Q

Beta-Oxidation of Fatty Acids

A

1: dehydrogenation
2: hydration
3: Oxidation
4: cleavage

72
Q

dehydrogenation

A

removes one hydrogen from the alpha and beta carbons, and a double bond is formed. These hydrogens are transferred to FAD to form FADH2

73
Q

hydration

A

water is added to the
a and β carbon double bond as
–H and –OH, respectively.

74
Q

oxidation

A

The alcohol formed on the β carbon
is oxidized to a ketone. As we have seen before in the citric acid cycle, the hydrogen from the alcohol reduces NAD+
to NADH.

74
Q

Cleavage

A

In the fourth reaction of the cycle, the
bond between the  and β carbon is broken and a second CoA is added, forming an acetyl CoA and a fatty acyl CoA shortened by two carbons. The fatty acyl CoA can be run through the cycle again.

74
Q

Match the reactions of beta-oxidation when water is added

A

hydration

75
Q

Match the reactions of beta-oxidation with FADH2 forms

A

oxidation 1

75
Q

Match the reactions of beta-oxidation when a 2-carbon unit is removed

A

acetyl CoA cleaved

75
Q

Match the reactions of beta-oxidation a hydroxyl group is oxidized

A

oxidation 2

75
Q

Match the reactions of beta-oxidation: NADH forms

A

oxidation 2

75
Q

ATP PRODUCTION FROM B OX FOR MYRISTIC ACID (C14)

A

Activation - 2 ATP
b oxidation - 6 NADH x 2.5 = 70
6 FADH x 1.5 ATP = 9 ATP
total: 92 ATP

75
Q

ATP for Lauric Acid C12

A

ATP production for lauric acid (12 carbons):
Activation of lauric acid -2 ATP
6 acetyl CoA x 10 ATP/acetyl CoA 60 ATP
5 Oxidation cycles
5 NADH x 2.5 ATP/NADH 12.5 ATP
5 FADH2 x 1.5 ATP/FADH2 7.5 ATP
Total 78 ATP

75
Q

The total ATP produced from the -oxidation of stearic acid (C18) is

A

120 ATP
Activation -2 ATP
9 Acetyl CoA x 10 ATP 90 ATP
8 NADH x 2.5 ATP 20 ATP
8 FADH2 x 1.5 ATP 12 ATP
120 ATP

75
Q

2 Ketone Bodies:

A
  1. acetoacetyl CoA
  2. Acetone
75
Q

If carbohydrates are not available
Body fat breaks down to meet energy needs.

A

Ketone Bodies

76
Q

produced mostly in the liver and transported to cells in the heart, brain,
and skeletal muscle, where small
amounts of energy can be obtained by
converting acetoacetate or hydroxybutyrate back to acetyl CoA

A

Ketone bodies

76
Q

▪ Large amounts of acetyl CoA accumulate.
▪ Two acetyl CoA molecules combine to form acetoacetyl CoA.
▪ Acetoacetyl CoA hydrolyzes to acetoacetate, a ketone body.
▪ Acetoacetate reduces to  hydroxybutyrate or loses CO2 to form acetone, both ketone bodies

A

ketogenesis

76
Q

In diabetes, diets high in fat, and starvation.
▪ As ketone bodies accumulate.
▪ When acidic ketone bodies lowers blood pH below 7.4 (acidosis).

A

Ketosis

76
Q

▪ Insulin does not function properly.
▪ Glucose levels are insufficient for energy needs.
▪ Fats are broken down to acetyl CoA.
▪ Ketogenesis produces ketone bodies.

A

Ketone bodies and in diabetes

76
Q

In all types of diabetes, insufficient amounts of glucose are available in the muscle, liver, and adipose tissue. OH TAPOS????????

A

As a result, liver cells synthesize
glucose from noncarbohydrate sources
(gluconeogenesis) and break down fat, elevating the acetyl CoA level. Excess acetyl CoA undergoes ketogenesis, and ketone bodies accumulate in the blood. As the level of acetone increases, its odor can be detected on the breath of a person with uncontrolled diabetes who is in ketosis.

76
Q

KETOGENESIS: Acetoacetate produce acetone

A

decarboxylation

77
Q

KETOGENESIS: Acetoacetate produce b-hydroxybutyrate

A

reduction

77
Q

Process of digestion of proteins (3):

A
  1. Begins in the stomach where HCl in stomach acid activates pepsin to hydrolyze peptide bonds.
  2. Continues in the small intestine where trypsin and chymotrypsin hydrolyze peptides to amino acids.
  3. Is complete as amino acids enter the bloodstream for transport to cells
77
Q

Digestion of Proteins: What happens in stomach?

A

Pepsinogen to pepsin
proteins to denaturation to polypeptides

77
Q

Digestion of Proteins: What happens in the small intestine?

A

polypeptides to trypsin, chymotrypsin to AA

77
Q

Amino acids then proceed to:

A

intestinal wall and bloodstream

78
Q

Proteins provide (3):

A
  1. Amino acids for protein synthesis.
  2. Nitrogen atoms for nitrogen-containing compounds.
  3. Energy when carbohydrate and lipid resources are not available.
78
Q

Amino acids are degraded in the liver.
▪ An amino group is transferred from an amino acid
to an -keto acid, usually -ketoglutarate.

A

transamination

78
Q

enzymes in transamination

A

transaminase or aminotransferase

78
Q

transamination reaction:

A

alanine + a-ketogyltarate –> pyruvate + glutamate

78
Q

Removes the amino group as an ammonium ion from
glutamate.
▪ Provides -ketoglutarate for transamination.

A

oxidative deamination

78
Q

oxidative deamination reactioin

A

glutamate _ NAD+ + H2O by glutamate dehydrogenase –> a-ketoglutarate

78
Q

Write the products from the transamination of a-ketoglutarate by aspartate.

A

oxaloacetate, glutamate sa baba

78
Q

Detoxifies ammonium ion from amino acid degradation.
▪ Converts ammonium ion to urea in the liver.

A

urea cycle

78
Q

formed when in the mitochondria, when ammonium ion reacts with CO2
from the citric acid cycle, 2 ATP, and water.

A

carbamoyl phosphate

78
Q

reaction in forming carbamoyl phosphate

A

NH4+ + CO2 + 2ATP + H2O to carbamoyl phosphate

78
Q

4 reactions of urea cycle

A

1 Transfer of Carbamoyl Group
2 Condensation with Aspartate
3 Cleavage of Fumarate
4 Hydrolysis Forms Urea

78
Q

The carbamoyl group is transferred to ornithine to form citrulline.
Citrulline moves across the mitochondrial membrane into the cytosol.

A

urea cycle 1

78
Q

takes place in the
cytosol, citrulline
combines with
aspartate.
▪ Hydrolysis of ATP to
AMP provides energy.
▪ The N in aspartate is
part of urea.

A

urea cycle 2

78
Q

Is cleaved from argininosuccinate.
▪ Enters the citric acid cycle.

A

urea cycle 3

79
Q

Arginine is hydrolyzed
▪ Urea forms.
▪ Ornithine returns to the
mitochondrion to pick
up another carbamoyl
group to repeat the
urea cycle

A

urea cycle 4

80
Q

Urea cycle conversion:

A

Ammonium ion to urea
▪ Aspartate to Fumarate
▪ 3ATP to 2ADP, AMP, 4Pi

80
Q

site of Formation of urea

A

cytosol

80
Q

site of Formation of carbamoyl phosphate

A

mitochondrion

80
Q

site of Aspartate combines with citrulline

A

cytosol

80
Q

site where Fumarate is cleaved

A

cytosol

80
Q

citrulline forms

A

mitochondrion

80
Q

When needed, carbon skeletons of amino acids are used
to

A

produce energy by forming intermediates of the citric
acid cycle.

80
Q

Three-carbon skeletons: pyruvate

A

alanine
serine
cysteine

80
Q

4C skeleton oxaloacetate

A

aspartate
aspargine

80
Q

5C skeletons glutamate

A

glutamine
glutamate
proline
arginine
histidine

80
Q

Amino acids are classified as _ if they generate pyruvate or oxaloacete, which can be used to synthesize glucose

A

Glucogenic

80
Q

Amino acids are classified as _ if they generate acetoacetyl CoA or acetyl CoA, which can form ketone bodies or fatty
acids

A

ketogenic

80
Q

acetyl coa

A

isoleucine
leucine
threonine
tryptophan

81
Q

acetoacetyl CoA

A

leucine
lysine
phenylalanine
tyrosine

81
Q

AA pathways to CAC Ketone bodies process:

A

pyruvate to acetyl CoA to acetoacetyl CoA then ketogenesis

81
Q

PYRUVATE AA PATHWAYS:

A

Alanine
glycine
cysteine
serine
threonine
tryptophan

81
Q

Overview of Metabolism: (6)

A
  1. Catabolic pathways degrade large molecules.
  2. Anabolic pathway synthesize molecules.
  3. Branch points determine which compounds are degraded to acetyl CoA to meet energy needs or converted to glycogen for storage.
  4. Excess glucose is converted to body fat.
  5. Fatty acids and amino acids are used for energy when carbohydrates are not available.
  6. Some amino acids are produced by transamination.

CHM040: Biomolecules (3 decks)

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