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Nutrition Exam 2 > Chapter 8: Energy Metabolism > Flashcards

Chapter 8: Energy Metabolism Flashcards

1
Q

metabolism

A

the chemical processes involved in maintaining life

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2
Q

metabolism is the chemical processes involved in maintain life by:

A
  • enabling us to release energy from carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and alcohol
  • permitting us to synthesize new substances and excrete waste products
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3
Q

metabolism process

A

glycolysis –> acetyl CoA –> TCA cycle –> electron transport chain

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4
Q

metabolic pathway

A

a group of biochemical reactions that occur in a progression

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5
Q

what compounds are formed during the steps of metabolism

A

intermediates

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6
Q

metabolism is sometimes termed as

A

the bioenergetics because it is how we get energy

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7
Q

energy is stored in

A

the bonds that connect the molecules that make up carbohydrates, proteins, and fats

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8
Q

energy is released when

A

the bonds are broken

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9
Q

the bonds are broken with

A
  • aerobic reactions
  • anaerobic reactions
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10
Q

glycolysis

A

the metabolism of glucose

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11
Q

aerobic reactions

A

with oxygen

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12
Q

anaerobic reactions

A

no oxygen

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13
Q

anabolic pathways

A

use small compounds to build larger ones

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14
Q

anabolic equals

A

building

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15
Q

anabolic pathways use

A

energy

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16
Q

anabolic pathways are used during

A

periods of growth; pregnancy and childhood/adolescence

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17
Q

anabolic pathways use what small compounds to build larger ones

A

glucose, fatty acids, cholesterol, and amino acids are building the blocks

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18
Q

how we use glucose to build glycogen is an example of what pathway

A

anabolic pathway

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19
Q

catabolic pathways

A

break down larger compounds into smaller ones

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20
Q

glycogen is broken down to make glucose is an example of what pathway

A

catabolic pathway

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21
Q

catabolic pathways results in the release of

A

CO2, H2O, and energy (ATP)

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22
Q

catabolic pathways produce

A

energy

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23
Q

catabolic pathways are more prominent during

A

weight loss, wasting disease, or cancer

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24
Q

Because of the catabolic pathway, when someone is trying to lose weight it is really difficult to

A

maintain muscle mass

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25
Q

metabolism takes place

A

within the cells

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26
Q

different cells perform different metabolic functions

A

each cell’s structure is similar

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27
Q

outside of cell

A

plasma membrane

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28
Q

plasma membrane of a cell

A

holds in the cell contents

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29
Q

inside of cell

A

organelles and cytosol

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30
Q

organelles

A

mitochondria

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31
Q

mitochondria

A
  • generate most of the cell’s energy from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
  • most of the body’s energy is produced here
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32
Q

how is energy generated in the organelles

A

by aerobic metabolism

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33
Q

cytosol

A

fluid portion of the cell

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34
Q

what takes place in the cytosol

A

glycolysis and anaerobic metabolism

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35
Q

the most metabolically active organ

A

the liver

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36
Q

first organ to metabolize, store and distribute nutrients after absorption

A

the liver

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37
Q

the liver converts monosaccharides, amino acids, glycerol and fatty acids into

A
  • new compounds
  • energy
  • and store for future use
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38
Q

when the compounds in the liver are stores for future use they are stored as

A
  • triglycerides
  • glycogen
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39
Q

glycogen stores in the liver are responsible for

A

distributing nutrients

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40
Q

glycogen stored in the liver is broken down when

A

our blood glucose levels are low

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41
Q

stored glycogen helps

A

regulate or maintain homeostasis in blood glucose levels

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42
Q

what is stored glycogen not used for

A

energy

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43
Q

before the body can use energy from food, it must first

A

disassemble the macronutrients into carbon dioxide and water while capturing the released energy as ATP

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44
Q

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

A

a high energy molecule composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate molecules

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45
Q

any source of macronutrients can be used to generate

A

ATP

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46
Q

catabolism

A

the breaking down aspect of metabolism

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47
Q

three stages of catabolism

A
  1. digestion: breakdown of complex molecules to their component building blocks
  2. conversion of building blocks to acetyl-CoA (or other simple intermediates)
  3. metabolism of acetyl-CoA to CO2 and formation of ATP
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48
Q

complex molecules and building blocks involved in catabolism

A
  1. proteins –> amino acids –> acetyl-CoA
  2. carbohydrates –> monosaccharides –> acetyl-CoA
  3. lipids –> fatty acids, glycerol –> acetyl-CoA
  4. alcohol –> acetyl-CoA
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49
Q

only energy in ATP can be used directly to:

A
  • synthesize new compounds
  • contract muscles
  • conduct nerve impulses
  • pump ions across membranes (ex. active transport/the sodium-potassium pump)
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50
Q

ATP structure

A

made of adenine and ribose together which is adenosine bound to 3 phosphate groups

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51
Q

in ATP the bonds that connect the phosphate groups contain

A

energy

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52
Q

how is the energy released from the bonds in ATP

A

hydrolysis

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53
Q

someone who is about to do a high intensity exercise

A
  • in 3 to 5 seconds use up the ATP
  • have to continually produce ATP
  • when we can’t keep up with the demands of ATP during exercise, activity levels decrease
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54
Q

ATP is the cell’s direct

A

energy source

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55
Q

in order to provide a constant supply of energy

A

the body must continually produce ATP

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56
Q

adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

A

formed when one phosphate molecule is removed from ATP

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57
Q

regenerating ATP from ADP requires a source of

A

phosphate

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58
Q

sources of phosphate:

A
  • inorganic phosphate produced from initial breakdown of ATP
  • inorganic phosphate in creating phosphate (phosphocreatine or PCr)
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59
Q

creatine phosphate (PCr) is stored in the

A

muscles

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60
Q

when do we have higher levels of creatine phosphate

A

at rest

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61
Q

how long does this system last during exercise

A

creatine phosphate lasts for about 15 seconds during exercise depending on effort and intensity (10-20 seconds)

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62
Q

both sources of phosphate provide enough ATP to sustain a

A

sprint for up to 10 seconds

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63
Q

creatine phosphate

A

high energy compound formed in muscle cells when creatine combines with phosphate

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64
Q

how does creatine phosphate make ATP

A

a phosphate molecule is released to form ATP

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65
Q

as creatine phosphate levels dwindle

A

the body switches to anaerobic and aerobic metabolism to make ATP

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66
Q

anaerobic metabolism

A
  • no oxygen
  • produces less ATP per minute
  • only provides 1-1.5 minutes of maximal activity
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67
Q

aerobic metabolism

A
  • with oxygen
  • produces more ATP per minute
  • is able to produce ATP indefinitely
  • when demand for ATP is greater than the rate of metabolism, the activity slows down
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68
Q

during high intensity, short duration activities like sprinting and heavyweight lifting, what type of metabolism do we use

A

anaerobic metabolism

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69
Q

during low intensity, long duration activites like hiking, what type of metabolism do we use

A

aerobic metabolism

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70
Q

ATP synthesis involves

A

the exchange of ions in the form of hydrogen ions from energy-yielding compounds

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71
Q

oxidation reduction reactions are used

A
  • when electrons are transferred eventually to oxygen
  • to form water and release energy used to produce ATP
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72
Q

in oxidation reduction reactions, oxygen is

A

not used in every step

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73
Q

a substance is oxidized when it

A

loses one or more electrons or hydrogens

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74
Q

a substance is reduced when it

A

gains one or more electrons or hydrogens

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75
Q

what controls oxidation reduction reactions

A

enzymes

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76
Q

example of oxidation reduction reaction during glycolysis

A

glucose is oxidized, producing NADH and ATP

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77
Q

niacin is also called

A

B3

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78
Q

riboflavin is also called

A

B2

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79
Q

niacin and riboflavin are

A

key electron carriers

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80
Q

niacin and riboflavin help transfer hydrogens from energy-yielding compounds to

A

oxygen in metabolic pathways

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81
Q

niacin functions as a coenzyme

A

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)

82
Q

oxidized form of niacin

A

NAD+ found in cells

83
Q

reduced form of niacin

A

NADH found in cells

84
Q

oxidized form of riboflavin

A

FAD

85
Q

reduced form of riboflavin

A

FADH2

86
Q

what is the first step in forming ATP from glucose

A

glycolysis

87
Q

glucose metabolism is an essential energy source for all cells and particularly the

A

brain and red blood cells

88
Q

where does glycolysis take place

A

the cytosol of the cells

89
Q

glycolysis is a 10 step

A

anaerobic (no oxygen) catabolic (breaks down) pathway

90
Q

in glycolysis we start with

A

a six carbon glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NAD+

91
Q

in glycolysis we end with

A

2 three carbon pyruvates, 4 ATP, 2 NADH

92
Q

glucose is transformed to pyruvate

A
  • begins with one 6 carbon glucose molecule
  • ends with two 3 carbon pyruvate molecules
  • generate hydrogen ions
  • NAD+ is reduced to form NADH (picks up hydrogen ions)
  • NADH carrier hydrogen ions and electrons to the ETC
93
Q

what happens to pyruvate under anaerobic conditions (no oxygen)

A

pyruvate gets converted to lactate

94
Q

for the start of glycolysis

A

only glucose can start this process, so fructose would have to be converted first

95
Q

pyruvate to lactate under anaerobic conditions

A
  • metabolic conversion occurs in any cell in the body, including muscle
  • during anaerobic metabolism, pyruvate is reduced to lactate to prevent a buildup of excess hydrogen ions
  • lactate diffuses out of the cell and enters the liver
96
Q

once in the liver, how does lactate get converted to glucose

A

via the Cori Cycle

97
Q

the Cori Cycle helps maintain maintain energy supply during anaerobic conditions and recycles lactate

A

minimizing acidosis in muscles

98
Q

acidosis

A

a condition in which there is too much acid in the body’s fluids (the body’s acid-base balance is disrupted)

99
Q

during high intensity exercise, muscle cells rely on anaerobic respiration for ATP production

A
  • causes lactate to build and NAD+ regeneration
  • lactate is transferred to the liver where it is converted back to glucose via the Cori Cycle
100
Q

overview process of the Cori Cycle (from book)

A
  • glucose is converted to pyruvate during glycolysis. If there is not enough oxygen, pyruvate is converted to lactate and is released from the muscle into the blood
  • lactate travels through the blood to the liver
  • lactate is taken up by the liver and converted to pyruvate and then into glucose through gluconeogenesis
  • some glucose can be stored as glycogen through glycogenesis or sent back into the blood to be taken up by the muscle (causing a regeneration of NAD+)
101
Q

gluconeogenesis

A
  • making glucose out of non-CHO sources
  • amino acids, lactate, and glycerol can be used
102
Q

during gluconeogenesis, this processes uses ATP and ends up

A

with ADP

103
Q

how many amino acids are considered glucogenic

A

18 out of 20 amino acids

104
Q

glucogenic amino acids can be

A

transformed into pyruvate and other TCA cycle intermediates that enter gluconeogenesis and produce glucose

105
Q

pyruvate is the entry point into metabolism for how many of these 18 glucogenic amino acids

A

for 6 of these 18 amino acids

106
Q

the 6 amino acids that pyruvate is their entry point into metabolism are

A

alanine, serine, glycine, threonine, tryptophan, and cysteine

107
Q

if CHOs are low, we can utilize amino acids to go through the process of glycolysis

A

being a major source of blood glucose (not under standard conditions in the body)

108
Q

the other 12 glucogenic amino acids enter at

A

points along the TCA cycle

109
Q

glucogenic amino acids are

A

converted to pyruvate anaerobically and them transformed into glucose through gluconeogenesis, which can then be used to produce energy

110
Q

ketogenic amino acids are

A

aerobically converted to CoA, which can either be transformed into fatty acids and stored as a triglyceride in adipose tissue or energy for the TCA cycle

111
Q

some amino acids can enter the TCA cycle

A

directly

112
Q

ketogenic amino acids + oxygen =

A

Acetyl CoA

113
Q

triglyceride structure

A

glycerol backbone and 3 fatty acids

114
Q

glycerol to pyruvate

A

only the glycerol portion of the triglyceride is glucogenic and can be used to make glucose

115
Q

compared with glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids, glycerol produces

A

very little energy

116
Q

transition reaction

A

synthesis of Acetyl-CoA from pyruvate

117
Q

what happens to all energy producing nutrients before entering the TCA cycle

A

all energy producing nutrients are transformed to acetyl CoA before entering the TCA cycle

118
Q

transition reaction occurs in the

A

presence of oxygen (aerobic)

119
Q

beta oxidation

A

adding coenzyme A (CoA)

120
Q

transition reaction process

A
  • 2 molecules of pyruvate cross the mitochondrial membrane and enter the mitochondria
  • a carbon molecule is removed and coenzyme A is added (beta oxidation)
121
Q

acetyl CoA can enter 2 pathways

A
  • the TCA cycle (if ATP is limited)
  • converted to fatty acid and stored as fat (ample ATP)
122
Q

before fatty acids can be used for energy, what must happen

A

fatty acids are hydrolyzed from triglycerides by lipolysis

123
Q

lipolysis

A

a metabolic process that breaks down triglycerides into glycerol and free fatty acids

124
Q

what catalyzes the reaction of triglycerides to fatty acids via lipolysis

A

hormone sensitive lipase

125
Q

before fatty acids can cross into the mitochondria, they

A

must be activated

126
Q

where are fatty acids activated and then sent

A

fatty acids are activated in the cytosol and then go to the mitochondria

127
Q

how does the fatty acid become activated

A

the addition of coenzyme A to the carboxylic end of the fatty acid chain activates the fatty acid

128
Q

fatty acids are oxidized for energy (breakdown of the process from the book)

A
  • triglycerides from the diet and adipose tissue undergo lipolysis to yield free fatty acids and glycerol. Hormone sensitive lipase stimulates the reaction
  • glycerol is first converted to DHAP before it can enter anaerobic glycolysis to be converted to pyruvate. The first step requires ATP which results in ADP
  • during beta oxidation, a molecule of CoA is attached to the end of a fatty acid. The 2 end carbons plus CoA are then cleaved off and converted to Acetyl CoA, reducing NAD+ to NADH+H+ and FAD to FADH2
  • this aerobic process repeats itself until all the fatty acids have been converted to acetyl CoA
  • the acetyl CoA formed enters the TCA cycle
129
Q

inside the mitochondria, fatty acids are

A

disassembled by beta oxidation

130
Q

beta oxidation steps

A
  • 2 carbons at the end of the fatty acid are removed and joined with CoA to form Acetyl CoA
  • this process continues until all carbon molecules are converted
  • hydrogen and electrons are released as each pair of carbons is cleaved off
131
Q

need CHOs to go through the process of

A

beta oxidation

132
Q

fatty acids are

A

ketogenic (they can be used to form ketone bodies)

133
Q

when _______ are low, acetyl CoA increases which is then converted to ketone bodies

A

CHOs

134
Q

glucogenic amino acids

A

can be converted into glucose through gluconeogenesis

135
Q

ketogenic amino acids

A

can be converted into ketone bodies or fatty acids (create acetyl CoA)

136
Q

amino acids that are both ketogenic and glucogenic

A

are transformed to acetyl CoA before they enter the energy pathway

137
Q

the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle releases

A

high energy electrons and hydrogen ions

138
Q

the TCA cycle is also called the

A

citric acid or Krebs cycle

139
Q

what is the third stage for the oxidation of acetyl CoA

A

the TCA cycle

140
Q

steps for the oxidation of acetyl CoA

A

glycolysis –> transition process –> TCA cycle

141
Q

where does the TCA cycle take place

A

location is in the mitochondria

142
Q

process of the TCA cycle

A
  • these macronutrients enter the cycle as acetyl CoA, where most of the energy in the original molecule is now trapped
  • this stored energy is freed during the TCA cycle and is transferred to 2 coenzyme hydrogen ion carriers to be released in the ETC
  • stored energy is being released
143
Q

key factors of the TCA cycle

A
  • coenzyme hydrogen carriers
  • NADH+H+
144
Q

coenzymes and electron carriers are key in the

A

production of ATP

145
Q

for every FAD how many ATP can we make

A

1.5 ATP

146
Q

for every NAD+ how many ATP can we make

A

2.5 ATP

147
Q

the ETC and oxidative phosphorylation produces the majority of

A

ATP

148
Q

the ETC is comprised of

A

a series of protein complexes located in the inner mitochondrial membrane

149
Q

the ETC makes

A

90% of the ATP used by the body for energy, growth, and maintenance

150
Q

electrons are transferred from one protein complex to another, resulting in the formation of

A

ATP and water

151
Q

protein complexes are called

A

flavoproteins

152
Q

flavoproteins contain

A

riboflavin and cytochromes

153
Q

cytochromes contain

A

iron and copper

154
Q

although vitamins and minerals don’t provide energy, they are essential for

A

energy production (riboflavin, iron, and copper)

155
Q

process of the ETC (from the book)

A
  • hydrogen ions and high energy electrons are delivered to the inner mitochondrial membrane from the TCA cycle by NADH+H+ and FADH2
  • as the electrons are passed down the ETC, hydrogen ions cross the mitochondrial membrane
  • hydrogen ions are forced back across the membrane through the ATP synthase complex to produce ATP and water during oxidative phosphorylation
156
Q

absorptive state of the body is the

A

feed state

157
Q

absorptive state of the body is a period

A

within 4 hours following a meal in which anabolic (building) processes exceed catabolic (breakdown) processes

158
Q

what happens to glucose in the absorptive state

A

build glycogen from glucose

159
Q

postabsorptive state of the body is a period

A

of time usually more than 4 hours after eating where catabolic processes exceed anabolic processes

160
Q

in the postabsorptive state, energy needs are met by

A

the breakdown of stores (body starts to break down some glycogen into glucose)

161
Q

what happens to blood sugar in the postabsorptive state

A

blood sugar starts to dip

162
Q

the absorptive state and postabsorptive state are both regulated by

A

hormones

163
Q

red blood cells and the central nervous system use glucose for energy but

A

cannot store glucose

164
Q

liver and muscle convert excess glucose into

A

glycogen

165
Q

liver glycogen

A
  • important to maintain blood glucose homeostasis
  • only glucose from liver glycogen can enter the bloodstream
  • depleted 12-18 hours after eating (will be shorted if someone isn’t eating CHOs because they don’t have those CHO stores)
166
Q

muscle glycogen

A

used by muscle for energy

166
Q

excess CHOs and amino acids are stored as

A

triglycerides

167
Q

excess glucose that is not stored as glycogen is converted into

A

triglycerides

168
Q

how much energy is spent to convert glucose into triglycerides

A

25% of energy (the body is taking a lot of energy to do this conversion)

169
Q

protein promotes the most

A

satiety

170
Q

with a diet really high in protein

A

going to pull back in amount of carbs and fats

171
Q

excess amino acids not used by the body are converted to

A

triglycerides

172
Q

amino acids undergo

A

deamination and remaining carbons are converted to acetyl CoA and then into fatty acids

173
Q

fatty acids are stored as triglycerides

A

excess kcals in any form will be stored as a triglyceride via lipogenesis

174
Q

lipogenesis

A

a metabolic process that converts CHOs and other substrates into fatty acids, which are then stored as fats

175
Q

how much energy is spent to convert fatty acids to triglycerides

A

5% of energy

176
Q

dietary fat is easier to store as a triglyceride than dietary CHO or protein

A
  • most Americans decrease in carb intake and increase in fat intake
  • people consume more fat (bumps up total caloric intake since fat is 9 kcals/g)
177
Q

glucagon promotes

A

lipolysis

178
Q

insulin promotes

A

fatty acid synthesis and inhibits lipolysis

179
Q

glucagon increases

A

blood sugar levels

180
Q

insulin decreases

A

blood sugar levels

181
Q

lipolysis can cause

A

obesity induced Type 2 diabetes

182
Q

during the postabsorptive state

A

metabolism favors energy production

183
Q

how does the body meet energy needs 4 or more hours after eating

A

meets energy needs from stored energy

184
Q

energy stores are depleted during

A

fasting

185
Q

between meals and overnight

A

energy is from glycogen and fatty acids

186
Q

after 18 hours the body adapts

A
  • proteins, glycerol, pyruvate, and lactate are used to make glucose
  • lipolysis is increased (the breakdown of fat)
187
Q

prolonged fasting

A

ketone bodies provide energy to the brain

188
Q

severe fasting or starvation

A
  • fat reserves are depleted
  • muscle tissue is broke down to provide energy
189
Q

ketogenesis

A

the formation of ketone bodies

190
Q

ketogenesis generates energy during

A

prolonged fasting

191
Q

ketogenesis occurs

A

with the buildup of acetyl CoA then converts acetyl CoA into ketone bodies

192
Q

ketogenesis peaks

A

after an individual has fasted or consumed a limited-carbohydrate dies for 3 days

193
Q

as the fast continues the brain uses ketones for fuel

A

30% of fuel is from ketones, with 70% from blood glucose

194
Q

ketoacidosis

A

the excess accumulation of ketone bodies

195
Q

ketoacidosis occurs with

A

untreated Type 1 diabetes when glucose levels are very high

196
Q

ketoacidosis can lead to

A

impaired heart activity, coma, and even death

197
Q

metabolism of ATP: glucose

A
  • yields glucose
  • doesn’t yield amino acids for body proteins
  • yields fat for adipose tissue stores
  • high energy cost of conversion to adipose tissue stores
198
Q

metabolism of ATP: fatty acids

A
  • doesn’t yield glucose
  • doesn’t yield amino acids for body proteins
  • yields fat for adipose tissue stores
  • minimal energy cost of conversion to adipose tissue stores
199
Q

metabolism of ATP: glycerol

A
  • yields glucose, but not a major pathway
  • doesn’t yield amino acids for body proteins
  • yields fat for adipose tissue stores
  • high energy cost of conversion to adipose tissue stores
200
Q

metabolism of ATP: amino acids

A
  • yields glucose
  • yields amino acids for body proteins
  • yields fat for adipose tissue stores, but is inefficient
  • high energy cost of conversion to adipose tissue stores
201
Q

metabolism of ATP: alcohol

A
  • doesn’t yield glucose
  • doesn’t yield amino acids for body proteins
  • yields fat for adipose tissue stores
  • high energy cost of conversion to adipose tissue store

Nutrition Exam 2 (5 decks)

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