Chapter 8: Altruism - Helping Others

Question 1

Social exchange theory?

Answer 1

• the theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one’s reward and minimize one’s costs

Question 2

Social exchange theory:

- rewards?

Answer 2

• internal or external
• increasing self worth, reclaiming a positive public image
• reducing distress, guilt (especially when others are aware) to restore self image
• *egoism : the idea that self interest motivates all behaviour

Question 3

Social exchange theory:

- feel bad, do good?

Answer 3

• when one’s attend is on others, altruism is rewarding

* exception: when angry or experiencing depression or profound grief

Question 4

Social exchange theory:

- feel good, do good?

Answer 4

• happy people are helpful people, seen in both children and adults

Question 5

Social exchange theory:

-Why do we do altruism ??

Answer 5

• sustains good mood
• predisposes one to positive behaviours
• positive thinkers –> positive actors

Question 6

What are the two social norms which motivate altruism?

Answer 6

• reciprocity norm

- social-responsibility norm

Question 7

Social norms which motivate altruism:

- reciprocity norm?

Answer 7

• an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them
• helps define the “social capital”

Question 8

Social norms which motivate altruism:

- Social-responsibility norm?

Answer 8

• an expectation that people will help those dependent on them (ex children; those who are impoverished and those with disabilities)
• responses are closely tied to attributions however, less likely in western cultures if the need is seen as the result of own negligence

Question 9

Social norms which motivate altruism:

- Gender and receiving help, Eagly and Crowley (1986)?

Answer 9

• 35 studies that compared help revived by male or female victims
• short term encounters with strangers in need
• women offered help = to males and females
• men offered more help when the strangers in need were female
• **motivation by men to help women in need may not be via altruism but mating,
• men help attractive women more than unattractive ones.
• women receive and give more help in situations
• women seek out medical and psychiatric help more than men by 2 x
• women are more often to accept help from a friend

Question 10

Evolutionary Psychology:

- Kin protection?

Answer 10

• idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one’s close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes

Question 11

Evolutionary Psychology:

- reciprocity ?

Answer 11

• helping another because of the expectation that the favour will be returned.
• stronger in small, isolated groups

Question 12

Evolutionary Psychology:

- what are the three things this are looks at with respect to altruism?

Answer 12

• kin protection, reciprocity and group selection

Question 13

Empathy?

Answer 13

• the vicarious experience of another’s feeling; putting oneself in another’s shows
• comes naturally and may be hard wired - Baston,Fultz and Schoenrade (187)

Question 14

Empathy:

- Schaller and Cialdini (1988)?

Answer 14

• question existence of genuine altruism; conclude if we feel empty but know that there is something else that might make us feel better we aren’t as likely to help

Question 15

Empathy:
- Schaller and Cialdini (1988)?
L>other researchers conclusion??

Answer 15

• HOWEVER, Baston and other researchers concluded, after 25 experiments on egoism vs empathy that some people do focus on others’ welfare rather than their own.

Question 16

Bystander effect?

Answer 16

• the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders

Question 17

Bystander effect
- Latane and Darely (1970)??
L>also various other studies ..

Answer 17

• staged emergencies
• the presence of bystanders greatly decreased intervention
• given unrestricted communication among the bystanders, a person was at least as likely to be helped by a lone bystander as when observed by several.
• *in internet communication, ppl are more likely to help when people request for it if they believe they alone have received the request and not several others.
• elevator studies revealed that when someone dropped coins in an elevator with one other person present they received help 40% of the time but when there were many people with them in the elevator they were helped less than 20% of the time.

Question 18

As the number of bystanders increases, bystanders may be less likely to what?

Answer 18

• notice
• interpret as a problem (illusion of transparency and pluralistic ignorance)
• assume responsibility

Question 19

As the number of bystanders increases, bystanders may be less likely to notice.
L> Latane and Darley (1968)?

Answer 19

• men fill out questionnaire in a room by themselves or with two strangers
• staged emergency
• those alone noticed the smoke almost immediately, usually lass than five seconds
• those in group noticed it in about 20 seconds…keeping their eyes on their work.
• • when in a group, less likely to notice things

Question 20

As the number of bystanders increases, bystanders may be less likely to interpret something a problem:
- Illusion of transparency?
L> Gilovich et al(1997)

Answer 20

• a tendency to overestimate others’ ability to “read: our internal states.
• keenly aware of our own emotions we assume people can see right through us

Question 21

As the number of bystanders increases, bystanders may be less likely to interpret something a problem:
- pluralistic ignorance?

Answer 21

• the assumption that others are thinking and feeling what we are.
  ex: in an emergency, each person may think “ I’m very concerned” but perceive others as not looking alarmed - “ maybe its not an emergency”
  **this was seen in the smoke experiment…
  L> those in groups reported less vs those alone

Question 22

As the number of bystanders increases, bystanders may be less likely to assume responsibility.
L> Latane ad Darley (1968)?

Answer 22

• actor crying for help in another room
• asked students tot all about their problems with university life over an intercom. Guaranteeing anonymity stating on one would be visible or eavesdrop.
• during the situation students heard someone go into epileptic seizure.
• when thought they were the only listener 85% went to help
• when they thought others heard…only 31% left to help
• *when asked people deny the influence of other people being present

Question 23

As the number of bystanders increases, bystanders may be less likely to assume responsibility.
-Piliavin (1969)?

Answer 23

• staged an emergency in a lab
• subway passengers
• a confederate entered…he staggers and collapses
• when the victim carried a cane, one or more bystanders almost always promptly helped
• even when the victim was carrying bottle and smelled of liquor he was often helped and especially prompt when many male observers were close by.

Question 24

As the number of bystanders increases, bystanders may be less likely to assume responsibility.
- Solomon et al (1978), ambiguity?

Answer 24

• when the cry for help /emergency was visible and heard, people in groups were more likely to help vs emergencies that were more ambiguous when people that were solitary helped more so than those in groups.

Question 25

As the number of bystanders increases, bystanders may be less likely to assume responsibility.
L> what happens to people living in large cities that hinders them from helping people when in big groups?

Answer 25

• compassion fatigue and sensory overload from encountering so many people in need further restrains helping in larger cities across the world.
• bigger and more densely populated the city = less likely to be helped
• larger cities the bystanders are often strangers whose increasing numbers depress helping
• when bystanders are friends or people who share a group indignity , increased numbers am instead increase helping

Question 26

As the number of bystanders increases, bystanders may be less likely to assume responsibility.
- differences around the world? Levine et al (2001 and 2003)

Answer 26

-people in economically advanced countries offered les help to strangers and those in cultures marked by amiable and agreeably simpatico were more helpful

Question 27

When will we help?

Answer 27

• help when someone else does
  L> helpful models
• time presser (people are less likely to help when they are busy, in a rush and late for something important - in the hurry they do not fully grasp the situation)
• similarity to the victim
  L>more empathetic toward this similar to us (dress and beliefs)
  L> in one study 2/3 of students helped those similarly dressed to them
  L> people in another study were also more likely to help when the victim had morphological characteristics similar to the person that may be offering the help
  **even just sharing a birthday, fingerprint or first name leads people to be more helpful.

Question 28

When will we help?

-elevations?

Answer 28

a distinctive feeling in the chest of warmth and expansion ..often inspires people o become more self giving

Question 29

Who will we help?

- do individual differences in helpfulness exist?

Answer 29

YEPPERS

Question 30

Who will we help?

-individual differences in helpfulness exist. Such as?

Answer 30

• personality
• will be socially rewarded
• gender

Question 31

Who will we help?
-individual differences in helpfulness exist.
L> personality?

Answer 31

• predisposing traits: emotionality, empathy and self efficacy
• personality influences how particular peopler eat to a particular situation e.g. high self monitoring people when they think helpfulness

Question 32

Who will we help?
-individual differences in helpfulness exist.
L> gender?

Answer 32

• interacts with the type of situation

- men were found to be more helpful in dangerous situations and women were more likely to help in volunteer situations

Question 33

How may helping others be increased?

Answer 33

• reduce ambiguity, increase responsibility
• enable guilt and concern for self image
  (door in the face)
• socialize altruism
  L> teach moral inclusion, model altruism, learn by doing, attribute helping behaviour to altruism (oversustificaiton effect)
• learn about altruism

Question 34

How may helping others be increased

- door in the face?

Answer 34

• a strategy for gaining a concession. After someone first turns down a large request, the same request counter offers with a more reasonable offer

Question 35

How may helping others be increased:

• Socialize altruism:
• Moral exclusion? Moral inclusion(teach this) ?

Answer 35

• the perception of certain individuals or groups as outside the boundary within which you apply moral values and rules of fairness
• regarding others as within your circle of moral concern