Chapter 8 Flashcards
Auguste Comte’s sociological perspective
-human behaviour is a function of forces beyond the control of the individual
- perspective generally assets that individuals are socialized into the existing social structure as they internalize society’s norms or social expectations; this generally promotes conformist behaviour
What a given society considers acceptable is defined through two types of norms. What are they?
-prescriptive norms (telling us what we should do)
-proscriptive norms (tell us what we shouldn’t do)
Some norms are informal. Explain what this means
there are no written laws defining them. As societies become more complex and develop more formal structures, it becomes necessary to convert some norms into formal laws
Emile Durkheim Perspective
-Sees individual behaviour as the product of the social environment rather than intrinsic traits
-Believed that human groups will always make rules, and that every group will have some members who break some of the rules - that is, engage in crime and/or deviance
Structural Functionalism
asserts that all social structures work together to promote a stable and harmonious society
Theories of social order can be classified in terms of which three paradigms?
- Consensus
- Conflict
- Symbolic interactionism
Consensus
-functionalist paradigm
-society as a set of interrelated parts that contribute to the overall functioning of the whole collective conscience
Conflict
-marxist paradigm
-society as an assortment of disparate groups competing for power and resources
-society’s most powerful define what or who is deviant, typically in a way that best satisfies their own interests
Symbolic Interactionism
-Gabriel Tarde
-less about social order and more about social processes through which criminal behaviour is learned (e.g. imitation and interaction)
Functionalism
Social stability is a prerequisite for a healthy and strong society. Social institutions maintain social order.
Conflict Theory
Society is built upon inequality on the basis of social class, gender, race etc. Social institutions maintain power inequality.
Symbolic Interactionism
Interactions are done through the exchange of words, signs, and symbols which have the power to shape thought.
What does the social structural tradition look for?
the root causes of crime in social institutions such as family, religion, and the economic, education, and political systems.
The Human Ecological School
Ecological school of crimin. studies how elements of the physical and social environment interact to create a criminal environment.
Concentric-circle theory
suggests that cities develop from the inner city to the suburbs in a predictable series of concentric rings, each of which encompasses a particular set of social and environmental characteristics. Zone 2, the transitional zone, is plagued with crime.
Shaw and McKay’s Social Disorganization Theory
sees deviance and crime as consequences of a breakdown of social control in environments characterized by social and economic instability. Four elements contribute to social disorg.: low economic status, ethnic diversity, high mobility, family disruption
Shaw and Mckay’s Cultural Transmission Theory
sees deviance as a socially learned behaviour that is transmitted through successive generations, especially in disorganized urban settings
Durkheim’s Anomie and the two propositions
A state of deregulation, breakdown, or normlessness in society, usually attributed to decreased homogeneity.
1. social organization is necessary to keep undesirable human tendencies in check
2. where social order breaks down and social norms lose their influence, anomie develops, and crime increases significantly
Merton’s Strain Theory
Sees emotional turmoil and conflict as resulting from individuals’ inability to achieve socially approved goals through legitimate means. He identified five distinct “modes of adaptation” to the goals and means approved by society
Strain Theory: Conformity
conformists have internalized both the goals of their society and the means prescribed for achieving them
Strain Theory: Innovation
this mode is adopted by people who accept the goals of society (e.g. getting an education) but either lack or reject the socially accepted means of achieving them
Strain Theory: Ritualism
individuals who adopt a ritualistic approach accept the goals prescribed by society but do not put any effort into pursuing them
Strain Theory: Retreatism
this mode applies to people who reject both society’s goals and then accept means of achieving them
Strain Theory: Rebellion
rebels reject the system in its entirety. instead of finding ways to live within it, they seek to replace it. some go beyond political protest and resort to the extreme violence of terrorism
Agnew’s Strain Theory
Three general forms of strain:
1. strain caused by failure to achieve positively valued goals
2. strain caused by the removal of positively valued stimuli from the individual
3. strain caused by the presentation of negative stimuli
Policy Implications of Social-Structural Theories
these theories see crime as the product of macro social conditions. Policies seek to prevent crime by improving these conditions, e.g., increasing socially acceptable opportunities for meaningful employment and through urban improvement projects. There is little evidence that these policies have succeeded.
Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory
Criminal behaviour is socially learned through frequent exposure to negative influences. Micro-level theory that combines psychological understandings of learning with symbolic interactionism. The process of learning criminal behaviour includes: a) learning the techniques of committing the crime; b) learning the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes
Differential reinforcement theory
a sociological theory that sees crime as a learned behaviour reinforced by its consequences
Differential association-reinforcement
people learn social skills through operant conditioning controlled by stimuli that follow the behaviour
Labelling theory
a sociological explanation of crime that proposes that negative labelling can predispose people to feel like outcasts, increasing the likelihood of further deviant or criminal behaviour; also known as societal reaction theory
Moral entrepreneurs
individuals who use their power and/or influence to shape the legal system to their advantage, typically by drawing attention to issues that they have identified as social problems in need of being addressed
Primary Deviance
acts or behaviour that run counter to societal norms but that have not been socially recognized or labelled as deviant
Secondary Deviance
deviant acts or behaviour that result from labelling
What did Becker argue about people that have been labelled?
that once individuals are “tagged” as criminals, the stigma attached to the label can make it difficult for them to reintegrate into society
Conflict Theory
Rooted in Marx. Sees crime as the product of social and/or economic disparities in society and suggests that people resort to criminal activity in response to division and competition. Conflict theorists point to discriminatory practices within the CJS, discrimination against the lower classes, and bias in the ways in which laws are created and used to support the status of those who make them
Peacemaking
a humanistic approach to crime control that emphasizes reconciliation through mediation and dispute settlement, rather than punishment and retribution. Punishment is seen as no less violent than crime. Posits that fundamental changes in the structure of society are required if crime is to be reduced
Feminist Perspective: Significant innovations in legal discourse
-universalization of rap laws
-redefinition of gender crimes
-redefinition of gender relations in crim
-increased awareness of the treatment of women in the CJS
-a call for new measurement and strategies to explain women’s experiences
Liberal Feminism
advocates for women’s equality and freedom of choice
Socialist Feminism
gender oppression is a feature of capitalists societies and criminality is a by-product of the class system
Radical feminism
women are subordinated by a patriarchal system rooted in male aggression and desire to control women’s sexuality
Marxist feminism
capitalism has a direct influence on female crime
intersectional feminism
disabled, trans, indigenous and racialized women face compounded inequalities
Four key elements of left-realism
- a commitment to detailed empirical investigation; left-realists rely heavily on victimization data
- the independence and objectivity of criminal activity
- the disorganizing effect of crime: all crimes are serious
- the possibility and desirability of developing measures to reduce crime
Lifestyle Theory
risk of victimization is to some extent a function of lifestyle, in particular the social settings that the individual frequents and their position in the social structure (the higher the status, the lower the risk of victimization)
Rational-choice theory
offenders rationally assess the level of skill required to commit the act, the personal gain to be obtained from the act, and the risk pf detection/apprehension
Life-course theory
behaviour can be affected by major events, experience, or awareness, or “turning points” that occur at different stages of life, putting an individual into the position of having to respond or not respond
Routine conflict theory
the behaviour of both offenders and victims is a product of rational choice based on learned repertoires for responding to conflict
Cultural crim.
explores the many ways in which cultural dynamics intertwine with the practices of crime and crime control in contemporary society. Emphasizes the centrality of meaning and representation in the construction of crime as a momentary event, a subcultural endeavor, and a social issue. Examines the media’s role in creating moral panic
