Chapter 7

Question 1

List the four psychological orientations

Answer 1

1. Psychodynamic
2. Cognitive
3. Moral development
4. Behavioral personality

Question 2

What do they four psychological orientations focus on?

Answer 2

their examination on basic components of human nature that are viewed as characteristics of the human species (e.g. appetites, aversions; motives, emotions)

Question 3

the roots of Supernatural Explanations

Answer 3

-these were deterministic and we rooted in religion, superstition, and the supernatural

Question 4

Demonic Possession

Answer 4

-control of aa person by a supernatural spirit or power, typically identified as a the cause of deviant or criminal behaviour
- consistent with the positivist model
- the persecution of women thought to be witches
-the first refutation of the existence of demons was written in 1533 by Johann Weyer, who argued that those thought to be possessed were actually mentally ill

Question 5

List and explain what the three essential contributors to the development of the psychiatric aspects of crime

Answer 5

-Henry Maudsley believed that criminals were “morally degenerate”
-Isaac Ray extensively on the subject of “moral insanity” and considered it a “disease… never established by a single diagnostic symptom”
-Gustav Aschaffenburg argues that we are influenced less by heredity than by our social environment

Question 6

Criminal Personality

Answer 6

a personality type characterized by such traits as antisocial behaviour, social immaturity, and nervous systems that do not condition well

Question 7

What two theoretical categories can psychological explanations be divided into?

Answer 7

-intrapsychic factors (internal psychological factors)
-learning factors

Question 8

Psychodynamic theory

Answer 8

Sigmund Freud’s theory that behaviour is an expression of internal conflict stemming from unresolved, often unconscious experiences during childhood

Question 9

What are the three basic elements of personality?

Answer 9

1. Id: primitive, instinctual urges
2. Ego: the rational, conscious dimension that mediates between the id and the superego
3. Superego: the moral and ethical dimension of personality

Question 10

Explain Freud’s intrapsychic approach on Psychodynamics

Answer 10

-criminal behaviour is seen as an indication of a personality conflict and the product of an uncontrolled Id
-early childhood experiences most directly affect later psychological development
-some forms of delinquent behaviour may be the result of traumatic experiences, or displaced hostility and/or unconscious desire for punishment to relieve guilt

Question 11

What are the five stages of child development that influence our psychosexual development?

Answer 11

1. oral
2. anal
3. phallic
4. sexual latency
5. genital
   - problems experienced during these phases could trigger psychological problems that could lead to unacceptable and even criminal behaviour

Question 12

Freudian explanation: what is criminal behaviour a product of?

Answer 12

an uncontrolled Id; a form of neurosis

Question 13

Freudian explanation: what is criminal behaviour an alternative of?

Answer 13

alternative way of satisfying needs that we not fulfilled by the criminal’s family

Question 14

True or False: Freudian explanation: some criminal behaviour is the result of traumatic experiences (memories are repressed)

Answer 14

True

Question 15

Freudian explanation: some criminal behaviour may be a result of what?

Answer 15

of displaced hostility and/r an unconscious desire for punishment

Question 16

True or False: Freudian explanation: criminals don’t have an unconscious need to alleviate their sense of guilt and anxiety

Answer 16

False

Question 17

Freudian explanation: Psychoanalysis

Answer 17

Freud’s approach to treating internal conflict and tension that results from certain unresolved, often unconscious experiences
- a “talking therapy” that often focuses on the patient’s early childhood and dreams to bring repressed fears to consciousness

Question 18

Learning theory

Answer 18

a broad category of psychological study that comprises various schools focusing on different aspects of the learning process

Question 19

Three primary types of learning theory

Answer 19

1. cognitive
2. moral development
3. behavioural

Question 20

Cognition

Answer 20

a psychological term that refers to the mental processes - including attention, memory, and language - through which we organize our thoughts and make sense of the world around us
- environment ->mind->behaviour

Question 21

Frustration-Aggression Theory on Antisocial Behaviour

Answer 21

Antisocial behaviour is often attributed to aggression resulting from frustration. When people perceive that they are being prevented from achieving their goals, their frustration is likely to turn to aggression. The primary theoretical perspective to justify the use if treatment focused on rehab. Based on social learning theory.

Question 22

Which five elements does Dollard et al highlight of frustration aggression hypothesis?

Answer 22

1. Aggression is always a consequence of frustration
2. Risk of aggression escalates with degree of outside interference, and frequency and intensity of initiating event
3. The greater the risk of punishment, the less likely an aggressive act will be committed
4. Aggression may be redirected to another source
5. Once frustration has been vented, there is a temporary reduction in our desire to act aggressively

Question 23

Moral Development Explanations

Answer 23

-learning-based and process-oriented theories of crime
-central theme of these theories is their focus on the individual’s development and on developmental stages of a sense of morality and responsibility

Question 24

Moral development theory

Answer 24

the theory that morality develops in stages (refer to table 7.2)

Question 25

What were Lawrence Kohlberg’s finding of moral development in criminality?

Answer 25

-individuals pass through a common series of stages in which they develop their moral reasoning skills
-as we progress through the stages, we learn to make decisions about right or wrong and determine the ethically/morally acceptable course of action based on circumstances (refer to table 7.3)

Question 26

Behavioural learning theory

Answer 26

a psychological theory maintaining that all behaviour is learned through some type of external stimulus (negative or postive) not by inherent personality traits

Question 27

what are the two behavioural models of associative learning?

Answer 27

classical conditioning and operant conditioning

Question 28

Pavlov’s Classical conditioning

Answer 28

a process of behaviour modification in which a subject comes to respond in a particular manner to a previously neutral stimulus that has been repeatedly presented along with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits the desired response
Four kinds: stimultaneous, delayed, trace, backward

Question 29

Avoidance learning

Answer 29

a form of behavioural learning in which the individual learns to associate an undesirable behaviour with punishment and therefore to avoid it
-Aversion therapies are highly successful, but are less effective with some conditions (pedophilia, psychopathy, conditions associated with low arousal)

Question 30

Eysenck’s personality theory of criminality

Answer 30

he couples personality/temperament theory of criminality with classical conditioning to suggest that criminals have not been conditioned to behave in a socially acceptable manner (table 7.4)

Question 31

Skinner’s contribution to operant learning

Answer 31

-human behaviour is not the product of free will; it’s situational, determined by stimuli to which we simply react
-behaviour modification is premised on reinforcement and punishment

Question 32

Two methods for reinforcement delivery?

Answer 32

1. ratio schedules
2. interval schedules

Question 33

What are the key aspects of behaviour modification?

Answer 33

-define the problematic behaviour within a social, cultural, economic, etc. context
-unless the underlying problem can be identified, behaviour cannot be properly changed
-treatment usually involves drawing up a contract that specifies contingency elements (like who gains what from a sit.)
-the aim is to shape the behaviour of the offender using either a positive approach or a negative one (refer to table 7.5)

Question 34

List the problems with psychological theories

Answer 34

-theories of criminal and delinquent behaviour is rooted in psychology tend to have little regard for the contexts within which people act
-the assessment tools lack reliability and validity; they tend not to take into account factors such as age, social class, culture, gender, or race
-they focus on “defective” or “abnormal” personalities or personality traits

Question 35

List the benefits of psychological explanations

Answer 35

-they have been able to explain geographic or temporal variations in crime rates
-they have also provided insight into the various arousal mechanisms that are, or can be, influenced by the social environement
-psych perspectives also play an important role in the cjs’s efforts to determine the criminal responsibility of defendants