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Biology > Chapter 7: The Cardiovascular System > Flashcards

Chapter 7: The Cardiovascular System Flashcards

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1
Q

The cardiovascular system consists of a

A

1. A muscular four-chambered heart

2. Blood vessels

3. Blood

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2
Q

The heart is composed of

A

Cardiac muscle and supports two different circulations:

1. The pulmonary circulation

2. The systemic circulation.

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3
Q

The heart is composed of cardiac muscle and supports two different circulations:

A

1. the pulmonary circulation

2. the systemic circulation

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4
Q

Each side of the heart consists of an

A
  1. Atrium

and aa

  1. Ventricle
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5
Q

The atria are separated from the ventricles by the

A

atrioventricular valves (tricuspid on the right, bicuspid [mitral] on the left).

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6
Q

The ventricles are separated from the vasculature by the

A

semilunar valves (pulmonary on the right, aortic on the left).

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7
Q

The pathway of blood is:

A

picture:

Right atrium

tricuspid valve

right ventricle

pulmonary valve

pulmonary artery

lung

pulmonary veins

left atrium

mitral valve

left ventricle

aorta valve

aorta

arteries

arterioles

capillaries

venules

veins

venae cava

right atrium

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8
Q

The left side of the heart contains

A

more muscle than the right side because the systemic circulation has a much higher resistance and pressure.

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9
Q

Electrical conduction of the heart starts at the

A

sinoatrial (SA) node and then goes to the atrioventricular (AV) node. From the AV node, electrical impulses travel to the bundle of His before traveling through the Purkinje fibers.

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10
Q

Systole refers to the?

During diastole?

A

Systole refers to the period during ventricular contraction when the AV valves are closed.

During distole, the heart is relaxed and the semilunar valves are closed.

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11
Q

The cardiac output is the product of

A

heart rate and stroke volume.

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12
Q

The sympathetic nervous system increases the ____ and the parasympathetic nervous system ___(does what to the heart rate).

A

*increase heart rate and contractility

*decreases heart rate

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13
Q

The vasculature consists of

A

arteries

veins

capillaries

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14
Q

Arteries are

A

Arteries are thick, highly muscular structures with an elastic quality.

This allows for recoil and helps to propel blood forward within the system. Small muscular arteries are arterioles, which control flow into capillary beds.

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15
Q

Small muscular arteries are ____, which control flow into _____.

A

1. Arterioles

2. Capillary beds

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16
Q

Capillaries have

A

Capillaries have walls that are one cell thick, making them so narrow that red blood cells must travel through them single-file. Capillaries are the sites of gas and solute exchange.

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17
Q

Veins are

A

Veins are inelastic, thin-walled structures that transport blood to the heart. They are able to stretch in order to accommodate large volumes of blood but do not have recoil capability. Veins are compressed by surrounding skeletal muscles and have valves to maintain one-way flow. Small veins are called venules.

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18
Q

A portal system is one in which

A

blood passes through two capillary beds in series.

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19
Q

In the hepatic portal system

A

blood travels from the gut capillary beds to the liver capillary bed.

Gut–>Liver

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20
Q

In the hypophyseal portal system

A

blood travels from the capillary bed in the hypothalamus to the capillary bed in the anterior pituitary.

Hypothalamus–>anteripr pituitary

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21
Q

In the renal portal system

A

blood travels from the glomerulus to the vasa recta through an efferent arteriole.

Glomerulus –> vasa recta1

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22
Q

In the _____, blood travels from the gut capillary beds to the liver capillary bed via the hepatic portal vein.

A

hepatic portal system

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23
Q

In the ______, blood travels from the capillary bed in the hypothalamus to the capillary bed in the anterior pituitary.

A

hypophyseal portal system

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24
Q

In the______, blood travels from the glomerulus to the vasa recta through an efferent arteriole.

A

renal portal system

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25
Q

Blood is composed of what?

A

Blood is composed of cells and plasma, an aqueous mixture of

  1. nutrients
  2. salts
  3. respiratory gases
  4. hormones
  5. blood proteins
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26
Q

Red blood cells aka?

Red blood cells lack what? in order to do what?

A

Erythrocytes (red blood cells)

lack mitochondria, a nucleus, and organelles in order to make room for hemoglobin, a protein that carries oxygen. Common measurements include hemoglobin concentration and hematocrit, the percentage of blood composed of erythrocytes.

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27
Q

White blood cells aka?

White blood cells are formed in?

A

Leukocytes (white blood cells) are formed in the bone marrow. They are a crucial part of the immune system.

  • Granular leukocytes such as neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils play a role in nonspecific immunity.
  • Agranulocytes, including lymphocytes and monocytes, also play a role in immunity, with lymphocytes playing a large role in specific immunity.
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28
Q

Granular leukocytes such as____, play a role in_____?

A

Granular leukocytes such as neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils play a role in nonspecific immunity.

29
Q

Agranulocytes, including ______play a role in??

A

Agranulocytes, including lymphocytes and monocytes, also play a role in immunity, with lymphocytes playing a large role in specific immunity.

30
Q

Thrombocytes (platelets) are

A

Thrombocytes (platelets) are cell fragments from megakaryocytes that are required for coagulation.

31
Q

Blood antigens include the

A

surface antigens A, B, and O, as well as Rh factor (D).

  • The IA (A) and IB (B) alleles are codominant, while the i (O) allele is recessive. An individual has antibodies for any AB alleles he or she does not have.
  • Positive Rh factor is dominant.

An Rh-negative individual will only create anti-Rh antibodies after exposure to Rh-positive blood.

The ABO system is comprised of three alleles for blood type. In this particular class of erythrocyte cell-surface proteins, the A and B alleles are codominant, which means that a person may express one, both, or none of the ABO antigens.

If the A allele (IA or simply A) is present on one chromosome and the B allele (IB or B) is present on the other chromosome, both will be expressed, and the person’s blood type will be AB.

The O allele (i or O) is recessive to both the A and B alleles. People with type O blood do not express either variant (A or B antigen) of this protein and have a homozygous recessive genotype. The naming system of blood types is based on the presence or absence of these protein variants. The four blood types are: A, B, AB, and O. Because the A and B alleles are dominant, the genotypes for A may be IAIA or IAi, while the genotypes for B may be IBIB or IBi.

32
Q

Title: Physiology of the Cardiovascular System

A

START

33
Q

Blood pressure refers to the

A

force per unit area that is exerted on the walls of blood vessels by blood. It is divided into systolic and diastolic components.

34
Q

Blood pressure must be high enough to do what?

A

It must be high enough to overcome the resistance created by arterioles and capillaries, but low enough to avoid damaging the vasculature and surrounding structures.

by vasculature they mean: arteries, veins, and capillaries

35
Q

Blood pressure can be measured with a

A

sphygmomanometer.

36
Q

Blood pressure is maintained by

A

Blood pressure is maintained by baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes.

Low blood pressure promotes

  1. aldosterone
  2. antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) release

High blood osmolarity also promotes

  1. ADH release.
  2. atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) release.
37
Q

Gas and solute exchange occurs at the level of the

A

capillaries and relies on the existence of concentration gradients to facilitate diffusion across the capillary walls.

Capillaries are also leaky, which aids in the transport of gases and solutes.

38
Q

Starling forces consist of

A

hydrostatic pressure and osmotic (oncotic) pressure.

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure of the fluid within the blood vessel, while osmotic pressure is the “sucking” pressure drawing water toward solutes. Oncotic pressure is osmotic pressure due to proteins. Hydrostatic pressure forces fluid out at the arteriolar end of a capillary bed; oncotic pressure draws it back in at the venule end.

39
Q

Hydrostatic pressure is the

A

pressure of the fluid within the blood vessel, while osmotic pressure is the “sucking” pressure drawing water toward solutes.

40
Q

Oncotic pressure is

A

is osmotic pressure due to proteins.

41
Q

Oxygen is carried by _____, which exhibits _______.

A

hemoglobin

cooperative binding

Oxygen is carried by hemoglobin, which exhibits cooperative binding.

In the lungs, there is a high partial pressure of oxygen, resulting in loading of oxygen onto hemoglobin. In the tissues, there is a low partial pressure of oxygen, resulting in unloading. With cooperative binding, each successive oxygen bound to hemoglobin increases the affinity of the other subunits, while each successive oxygen released decreases the affinity of the other subunits.

42
Q

Carbon dioxide is largely carried in the blood in the form of

A

carbonic acid, or bicarbonate and hydrogen ions.

Carbon dioxide is nonpolar and not particularly soluble, while bicarbonate, hydrogen ions, and carbonic acid are polar and highly soluble.

43
Q

A high PaCO2, high [H+], low pH, high temperature, and high concentration of 2,3-BPG can cause a

A

right shift in the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve, reflecting a decreased affinity for oxygen.

  • In addition to the opposites of the causes of a right shift, a left shift can also be seen in the dissociation curve for fetal hemoglobin compared to adult hemoglobin.
  • Nutrients, wastes, and hormones are carried in the bloodstream to tissues for use or disposal.
44
Q

Coagulation results from an

A

activation cascade.

  • When the endothelial lining of a blood vessel is damaged, the collagen and tissue factor underlying the endothelial cells are exposed. This results in a cascade of events known as the coagulation cascade, ultimately resulting in the formation of a clot over the damaged area.
  • Platelets bind to the collagen and are stabilized by fibrin, which is activated by thrombin.
  • Clots can be broken down by plasmin.
45
Q

When the endothelial lining of a blood vessel is damaged, the

A

collagen and tissue factor underlying the endothelial cells are exposed. This results in a cascade of events known as the coagulation cascade, ultimately resulting in the formation of a clot over the damaged area.

46
Q

Platelets bind to the collagen and are stabilized by ____, which is activated by ____.

A

fibrin

thrombin

47
Q

Clots can be broken down by_____.

A

plasmin

48
Q

1� Starting from entering the heart from the venae cavae, what are the four chambers through which blood passes in the heart? Which valve prevents backflow into each chamber?

A

see pic

49
Q

2� Starting with the site of impulse initiation, what are the structures in the conduction system of the heart?

A

Sinoatrial (SA) node → atrioventricular (AV) node → bundle of His (AV bun-dle) and its branches → Purkinje fibers

50
Q

Compare and contrast arteries, capillaries, and veins:

A

SEE PIC

51
Q

4� Why does the right side of the heart contain less cardiac muscle than the left side?

A
  1. The right side of the heart pumps blood into a lower-resistance circuit and must do so at lower pressures; therefore, it requires less muscle. The left side of the heart pumps blood into a higher-resistance circuit at higher pressures; there-fore, it requires more muscle.
52
Q

5� If all autonomic input to the heart were cut, what would happen?

A
  1. If all autonomic innervation to the heart were lost, the heart would continue beating at the intrinsic rate of the pacemaker (SA node). The individual would be unable to change his or her heart rate via the sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system, but the heart would not stop beating.
53
Q

1� What are the components of plasma?

A
  1. Plasma is an aqueous mixture of nutrients, salts, respiratory gases, hormones, and blood proteins (clotting proteins, immunoglobulins, and so on).
54
Q

2� An individual with B+ blood is in an automobile accident and requires a blood transfusion� What blood types could he receive? The same individual is so thankful that, after recovery, he decides to donate blood. To which blood types could he donate?

  • Could receive from:
  • Could donate to:
A
  1. A B+ person could receive blood from a B+, B−, O+, or O− person. A B+ person could donate blood to a B+ or AB+ person.
55
Q

3� What does a hematocrit measure? What are the units for hematocrit?

A
  1. Hematocrit measures the percentage of a blood sample occupied by red blood cells. It is measured in percentage points.
56
Q

4� Which types of leukocytes are involved in the specific immune response?

A
  1. Lymphocytes are involved in specific immune defense.
57
Q

5� Where do platelets come from?

A
  1. Platelets are cellular fragments or shards that are given off by megakaryocytes in the bone marrow.
58
Q

6� Which cell type(s) in blood contain nuclei? Which do not?

  • Contain nuclei:
  • Do not contain nuclei:
A
  1. Only leukocytes (including neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes/ macrophages, and lymphocytes) contain nuclei. Erythrocytes and platelets do not.
59
Q

1� In bacterial sepsis (overwhelming bloodstream infection), a number of capillary beds throughout the body open simultaneously. What effect would this have on the blood pressure? Besides the risk of infection, why might sepsis be danger-ous for the heart?

A
  1. Opening up more capillary beds (which are in parallel) will decrease the overall resistance of the circuit. The cardiac output will therefore increase in an attempt to maintain constant blood pressure. This is a risk to the heart because the increased demand on the heart can eventually tire it, leading to a heart attack or a precipitous drop in blood pressure.
60
Q

2� What is the chemical equation for the bicarbonate buffer system? What enzyme catalyzes this reaction?

A
  1. The bicarbonate buffer system equation is
61
Q

3� Where should you look on the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve to determine the amount of oxygen that has been delivered to tissues?

A
  1. The amount of oxygen delivery can be seen as a drop in the y-value (percent hemoglobin saturation) on an oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve. For example, if the blood is 100% saturated while in the lungs (at 100 mmHg O2) and only 80% saturated while in tissues (at 40 mmHg O2), then 20% of the oxygen has been released to tissues.
62
Q

4� What direction does the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve shift as a result of exercise? What physiological changes cause this shift and why?

A
  1. The oxyhemoglobin curve shifts to the right during exercise in response to increased arterial CO2, increased [H+], decreased pH, and increased temperature. This right shift represents hemoglobin’s decreased affinity for oxygen, which allows more oxygen to be unloaded at the tissues.
63
Q

5� Exposure of which subendothelial compounds start the coagulation cascade? What protein helps stabilize the clot?

  • Starts the cascade:
  • Stabilizes the clot:
A
  1. The coagulation cascade can be started by the exposure of collagen and tissue factor to platelets and coagulation factors. The clot is stabilized by fibrin.
64
Q

The two major antigen families relevant for blood groups are the____ and ____.

A

ABO antigens and the Rh factor.

65
Q

a recipient who is type O will produce both anti-A and anti-B antibodies and can

A

Because type O blood cells express neither antigen variant, they will not initiate any immune response, regardless of the recipient’s actual blood type; people with type O blood are therefore considered universal donors because their blood will not cause ABO-related hemolysis in any recipient.

However, a recipient who is type O will produce both anti-A and anti-B antibodies and can only receive blood from other type O individuals.

On the other hand, people with type AB blood are considered universal recipients because they can receive blood from all blood types: no blood antigen is foreign to AB individuals, so no adverse reactions will occur upon transfusion. A more thorough description of each blood type is given in Table 7.1. Note that whole blood is almost never given in a transfusion; rather, packed red blood cells (with no plasma) are generally given. Thus, we care only about the donor’s red blood cell antigens (and not his or her plasma antibodies) when determining whether hemolysis will occur.

66
Q

The most common blood type in the United States is

A

O+

67
Q

The least common blood type in the United States is

A

AB−

68
Q

During childbirth, no matter how good the obstetrician is, women are exposed to a small amount of fetal blood. If a woman is Rh− and her fetus is Rh+, she will become

A

sensitized to the Rh factor, and her immune system will begin making antibodies against it. This is not a problem for the first child; by the time the mother starts producing antibodies, the child has already been born.

However, any subsequent pregnancy in which the fetus is Rh+ will present a problem because maternal anti-Rh antibodies can cross the placenta and attack the fetal blood cells, resulting in hemolysis of the fetal cells. This condition is known as erythroblastosis fetalis and can be fatal to the fetus. Today, we can use medicine to prevent this condition. There is less concern with ABO mismatching between mother and fetus because these maternal antibodies against AB antigens are of a class called IgM, which does not readily cross the placenta (unlike anti-Rh IgG antibodies, which can).

69
Q

When an Rh− woman is pregnant with her first Rh+ fetus, the risk of erythroblastosis fetalis in subsequent Rh-mismatched pregnancies can usually be avoided by giving the Rh− mother

A

Rh-immunoglobulin (RhoGAM) during pregnancy and immediately after delivery . Administration of immunoglobulin (which is a type of passive immunization) will absorb the fetus’s Rh+ cells, preventing the production of anti-Rh antibodies by the mother .

Biology (13 decks)

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