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Chapter 5 Flashcards

1
Q

Endocrine signaling involves the

A

secretion of hormones directly into the bloodstream. The hormones travel to distant target tissues, where they bind to receptors and induce a change in gene expression or cell function.

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2
Q

Peptide hormones are composed of

A

amino acids and are derived from larger precursor proteins(polypeptides) that are cleaved during post-translational modification.

peptide hormones are all derived from larger precursor polypeptides that are cleaved during post translational modification. these smaller units are transported to the Golgi apparatus for further modifications that activate the hormones and direct them to the correct locations in the cell.

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3
Q

Peptide hormones are ___and cannot ___ through the ___.

A

polar (charged)
pass
plasma membrane.

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4
Q

Peptide hormones bind to

A

extracellular receptors, where they trigger the transmission of a second messenger.

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5
Q

Each step of the signaling cascade can induce

A

amplification of the signal

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6
Q

Peptide hormones exert effects that usually have

A

rapid onset but are short-lived: Bec these hormones act the secondary messenger cascades, which are transient. It is quicker to turn them on and off, compared w/ steroid hormones, but their effect do not last w/o relatively constant stimulation.

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7
Q

These peptide hormones are water-soluble, so they travel

A

freely in the bloodstream and do not require a special carrier.

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8
Q

Steroid hormones are derived from ___ and are produced by the ____and _____

A

cholesterol, gonads, and adrenal cortex

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9
Q

Steroid hormones are minimally

A

non-polar and can pass through the plasma membrane.

Steroid hormones are little polar but most they are NOT

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10
Q

These (Steroid hormones ) hormones bind to and

One common form of conformational changes is _____?

A

promote a conformational change in cytosolic (cytosol) or intranuclear (in the nucleus) receptors; the hormone–receptor complex binds to DNA, altering the transcription of a particular gene. Binding of DNA can ether result in increase or decrease transcription of particular genes.

dimerization, or pairing of two receptor-hormone complexes.

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11
Q

Steroid hormones exert effects that usually have

A

Steroid hormones exert effects that usually have slow onset but are long-lived.

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12
Q

Because these hormones (steroid hormones) are not water soluble they must be?

What about their activeness ?

A

carried by proteins in the bloodstream to travel around the body.

Hormones are generally inactive while attached to a carrier protein and must dissociate from the carrier to function. levels of carrier proteins can change the levels of active hormone.

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13
Q

Amino acid–derivative hormones are

A

modified amino acids.

• Their chemistry shares some features with peptide hormones and some features with steroid hormones; different amino acid–derivative hormones share different features with these other hormone classes.

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14
Q

Amino acid–derivative hormones examples

A

Common examples are epinephrine, norepinephrine, triiodothyronine, and thyroxine.

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15
Q

Hormones can be classified by their

A

target tissues.

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16
Q

Direct hormones

A

are secreted and then act directly on a target tissue.

Ex: Insulin released by the pancreas causes increased uptake of glucose by muscles.

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17
Q

Tropic hormones have

A

req an intermediary to act.

For Ex: GnRH from hypothalamus stimulates LH and FSH. LH then acts on gonads to stimulate testosterone production in the male and estrogen production in females.
GnRH and LH do not cause direct changes in the physiology of muscle, bone, and hair follicles; rather they stimulate the production of another hormone by another endocrine gland that acts on these target tissue.

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18
Q

Endocrine Organs and Hormones START

A

START

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19
Q

The hypothalamus is the bridge between the

A

nervous and endocrine systems

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20
Q

release of hormones from the hypothalamus is mediated by a number of factors, including

A

including projections from other parts of the brain, chemo-and baroreceptors in the blood vessels, and negative feedback from other hormones.

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21
Q

In negative feedback, the final hormone (or product) of a pathway

A

inhibits hormones (or enzymes) earlier in the pathway, maintaining homeostasis.

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22
Q

The hypothalamus stimulates the?

what’s another name for the pituitary?

What happens once hormones have been released from the hypothalamus?

A

anterior pituitary gland through paracrine release of hormones into the hypophyseal portal system, which is a blood vessel system that directly connects the hypothalamus with the anterior pituitary.

Hypophysis

Hormones get released from the hypothalamus into this portal bloodstream, they travel down the pituitary talk and bind to receptors in the anterior pituitary, stimulating the release of other hormones.

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23
Q

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) releases ?

A

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) promotes the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).

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24
Q

Growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH) releases?

A

Growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH) promotes the release of growth hormone.

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25
Thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH) releases?
Thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH) promotes the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
26
Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)
Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) promotes the release of adreno-cortico tropic hormone (ACTH).
27
(PIF(_____) or ______) does what?
Prolactin-inhibiting factor Dopamine inhibits the release of prolactin.
28
Interactions with the posterior pituitary occur via the? and what hormones are secreted there?
via the axons of nerves projected by the hypothalamus. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) and oxytocin are synthesized in the hypothalamus and then travel down these axons to the posterior pituitary, where they are released into the bloodstream.
29
The anterior pituitary releases hormones in response to
in response to stimulation from the hypothalamus. Four of these (FSH, LH, ACTH, and TSH) are tropic hormones, while three (prolactin, endorphins, and growth hormone) are direct hormones.
30
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) promotes the development of ovarian follicles in females and spermatogenesis in males.
31
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH) promotes ovulation in females and testosterone production in males.
32
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) promotes the synthesis and release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex.
33
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) promotes the synthesis and release of triiodothyronine and thyroxine from the thyroid.
34
Prolactin promotes
milk production.
35
Endorphins _____ perception of______ and can produce ____.
decrease | pain and can produce euphoria.
36
Growth hormone (GH)
Growth hormone (GH) promotes growth of bone and muscle and shunts glucose to these tissues. It raises blood glucose concentrations.
37
The posterior pituitary releases two hormones produced in the hypothalamus.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) Oxytocin
38
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) is secreted in response to a
low blood volume or increased blood osmolarity and increases reabsorption of water in the collecting duct of the nephron, increasing blood volume and decreasing blood osmolarity.
39
Oxytocin is secreted during
Oxytocin is secreted during childbirth and promotes uterine contractions. It also promotes milk ejection and may be involved in bonding behavior. It is unusual in that it has a positive feedback loop, not negative.
40
The thyroid is located at the
base of the neck in front of the trachea; it produces three key hormones.
41
Triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) are produced by
Triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) are produced by follicular cells and contain iodine. They increase basal metabolic rate and alter the utilization of glucose and fatty acids. Thyroid hormones are required for proper neurological and physical development in children.
42
Calcitonin is produced by
parafollicular (C) cells. It decreases plasma calcium concentration by promoting calcium excretion in the kidneys, decreasing calcium absorption in the gut, and promoting calcium storage in bone. - inc Ca in bone - inc Ca excretion from kidneys - dec Ca in blood - dec Ca absorption in gut the process of eliminating or expelling waste matter=excretion
43
parathyroid glands release
parathyroid hormone (PTH), which increases blood calcium concentration.
44
PTH decreases excretion of
PTH - dec Ca in bone and excretion in kidney - increase Ca in blood and increase absorption in gut
45
PTH activates vitamin D, which is
PTH activates vitamin D, which is necessary for calcium and phosphate absorption from the gut. Parathyroid Hormone
46
PTH promotes resorption of
PTH promotes resorption of phosphate from bone and reduces reabsorption of phosphate in the kidney, but vitamin D promotes absorption of phosphate from the gut; these two effects on phosphate concentration somewhat cancel each other out.
47
The adrenal cortex produces three classes of steroid hormones.
The adrenal cortex produces three classes of steroid hormones: * Glucocorticoids such as (cortisol) and (cortisone) increase blood glucose concentration, reduce protein synthesis, inhibit the immune system, and participate in the stress response. Glucocorticoid release is stimulated by ACTH. * Mineralocorticoids such as (aldosterone) promote sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct, thus increasing water reab-sorption. Aldosterone also increases potassium and hydrogen ion excretion. Aldosterone activity is regulated by the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system, not ACTH. * Cortical sex hormones include androgens (like testosterone) and estrogens in both males and females.
48
Cortical sex hormones include
androgens (like testosterone) and estrogens in both males and females.
49
Glucocorticoids such as
Glucocorticoids such as cortisol and cortisone increase blood glucose concentration, reduce protein synthesis, inhibit the immune system, and par-ticipate in the stress response. Glucocorticoid release is stimulated by ACTH. ACTH: stimulates Glucocorticoid
50
Mineralocorticoids such as
Mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone promote sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct, thus increasing water reab-sorption. Aldosterone also increases potassium and hydrogen ion excretion. Aldosterone activity is regulated by the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system, not ACTH.
51
Cortical sex hormones include
Cortical sex hormones include androgens (like testosterone) and estrogens in both males and females.
52
The adrenal medulla is derived from the
The adrenal medulla is derived from the nervous system and secretes catechol-amines into the bloodstream. • Catecholamines include epinephrine and norepinephrine, which are involved in the fight-or-flight (sympathetic) response. • These hormones promote glycogenolysis, increase the basal metabolic rate, increase heart rate, dilate the bronchi, and alter blood flow.
53
Catecholamines include
Catecholamines include epinephrine and norepinephrine, which are involved in the fight-or-flight (sympathetic) response.
54
epinephrine and norepinephrine…these hormones promote
These hormones promote glycogenolysis, increase the basal metabolic rate, increase heart rate, dilate the bronchi, and alter blood flow.
55
The endocrine pancreas produces hormones that
The endocrine pancreas produces hormones that regulate glucose homeostasis. * Glucagon is produced by α-cells and raises blood glucose levels by stimulating protein and fat degradation, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis. * Insulin is produced by β-cells and lowers blood glucose levels by stimulating glucose uptake by cells and promoting anabolic processes, like glycogen, fat, and protein synthesis. * Somatostatin is produced by δ-cells and inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion.
56
Glucagon is produced by
Glucagon is produced by α-cells and raises blood glucose levels by stimulat-ing protein and fat degradation, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis.
57
Insulin is produced by
Insulin is produced by β-cells and lowers blood glucose levels by stimulating glucose uptake by cells and promoting anabolic processes, like glycogen, fat, and protein synthesis.
58
Somatostatin is produced by
Somatostatin is produced by δ-cells and inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion.
59
The gonads produce hormones that are involved in the
development and maintenance of the reproductive systems and secondary sex characteristics. * The testes secrete testosterone. * The ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone.
60
The testes secrete
The testes secrete testosterone.
61
The ovaries secrete
The ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone.
62
The pineal gland releases
The pineal gland releases melatonin, which helps to regulate circadian rhythms.
63
Other organs may release hormones, even if they are not primarily considered part of the
endocrine system. * Cells in the stomach and intestine produce hormones like secretin, gastrin, and cholecystokinin. * The kidneys secrete erythropoietin, which stimulates bone marrow to produce erythrocytes (red blood cells) in response to low oxygen levels in the blood. * The atria of the heart secrete atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), which pro-motes excretion of salt and water in the kidneys in response to stretching of the atria (high blood volume). * The thymus secretes thymosin, which is important for proper T-cell develop-ment and differentiation.
64
Cells in the stomach and intestine produce hormones like
secretin, gastrin, and cholecystokinin.
65
The kidneys secrete ___, which stimulates what?
The kidneys secrete erythropoietin, which stimulates bone marrow to produce erythrocytes (red blood cells) in response to low oxygen levels in the blood.
66
The atria of the heart secrete ___, which does what?
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), which promotes excretion of salt and water in the kidneys in response to stretching of the atria (high blood volume).
67
The thymus secretes____, which is important for what?
The thymus secretes thymosin, which is important for proper T-cell develop-ment and differentiation.
68
Common secondary messengers are:
- cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) - IP3 (inositol triphosphate) - Calcium * cAMP can bond to intracellular targets such as protein kinase A, which phosphorylates transcription factors like cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) to exert the hormone's ultimate effect. *
69
what kind of hormone is insulin? | what kind of hormones are estrogen and testosterone?
insulin is a peptide hormone, it has to be released at every meal in order to be active. thus, it has fast onset but is short-acting(like most peptide hormones). estrogen and progesterone are steroid hormones that promote sexual maturation. this is a slower, but longer lasting change ( as is true for most steroid hormones).
70
during pregnancy what happens with levels of estrogen and progesterone? and what does this increase affect?
high levels cause increase production of TBG, thyroxine-binding globulin. In order to compensate, pregnant woman secrete much higher levels of the thyroid hormone. thus, in order to diagnose thyroid disease in a pregnant woman, different reference values must be used
71
Epinephrine and norepinephrine are what type of hormones? Thyroxine and triiodothyronine are what kind of hormones?
epinephrine and norepinephrine are amino acid derivatives.they have fast onset and short lived(like peptide hormones) think of an adrenaline rush. Thyroxine and triiodothyronine are amino acid derivatives but have slower onset but longer duration.
72
peptide hormones and amino acid ones end in? Steroid hormones end in ?
- in, -ine (insulin, vasopressin, thyroxine, triidothyronine) - one, -ol, and -oid (testosterone, cortisol)
73
Where is the hypothalamus located?
forebrain
74
what part of the hypothalamus receives light input?
Suprachiasmatic nucleus receives some of the light input from the retinae and helps to control sleep-wake cycles.
75
The hypothalamus contain a number of nuclei in its three sections called?
LAV | lateral, ventromedial, and anterior hypothalamus.
76
anterior pituitary releases what hormones?
``` FSH LH GH ACTH TSH Prolactin (Dopamine) endorphins ```
77
posterior pituitary releases what hormones?
Oxytocin | ADH (vasopressin)
78
PIF is release by the?
Prolactin Inhibiting Factor(which is actually dopamine) is released by the hypothalamus and causes decrease in prolactin secretion.
79
how does milk ejection occur? what happens?
nipple stimulation activation of hypothalamus resulting in 2 reactions: 1. oxytocin released from posterior pituitary resulting in contraction of the smooth muscle of the breast and ejection of milk the nipple. 2. hypothalamus stops releasing dopamine onto the anterior pituitary, which allows prolactin release, causing production of milk and regulation of the milk supply.
80
a deficiency in iodine or inflammation of the thyroid may result in? Symptoms? and why are they so important?
hypothyroidism in which thyroid hormones are secreted in insufficient amount or not at all. lethargy, dec body temp, slowed respiration and heart rate, cold intolerance, and weight gain. thyroid hormones are req for neurological and physical development in children. If there is a deficiency when tested at birth is called: cretinism
81
Excess of thyroid hormone may result from what? is called what? symtoms?
Tumor or thyroid over stimulation. is called Hyperthyroidism heightened activity levels, increase body temp, increase respiratory and heart rate, heat tolerance, and weight loss.
82
follicular cells produce what? C-cells (parafollicular cells) produce what?
thyroid hormone (T3 and T4) calcitonin(in response to dec levels of Ca in blood) *(these 2 are located in thyroid tissue) *
83
calcitonin decreases plasma Ca levels in 3 ways?
- inc Ca in the blood - inc Ca execration from the Kidney - dec Ca absorption in the Gut *High levels of Ca in the blood stimulate secretion of calcitonin from the C-cells. *
84
Critically important functions of calcium include:
- bone structure and strength - release of neurotransmitters from neuron - regulation of muscle contraction - Clotting of blood (Ca is a cofactor). *In addition, calcium also plays a role in cell movement and exocytosis of cellular materials.
85
Key concept on PTH and Calcitonin:
PTH and calcitonin are antagonist to each other. they are the primary function of regulating Ca levels in the blood. PTH increases serum Ca levels, whereas Calcitonin decreases Ca levels.
86
PTH activates vitamin D which is req for ?
the absorption of calcium and phosphate in the gut.
87
Adrenal Gland: where are they located? what are the two parts of the adrenal gland? what does the adrenal cortex secrete?
top of the kidney Adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex It secretes corticosteroids. These are steroid hormones that can be divided into three functional classes: Glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and cortical sex hormones.
88
About glucocorticoids:
- Glucocorticoids are steroid hormones that regulate glucose levels - Two glucocorticoids: cortisol and cortisone. these hormones rain blood glucose by increasing gluconeogenesis and decreasing protein synthesis. - cortisol and cortisone can decrease inflammation and immunologic response. - Cortisol is known as stress hormone.
89
It starts from CRF and then what? not forget to tell me where they come from
CRF (Corticotropin Releasing factor) from Hypothalamus and promotes the release of ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone) from the anterior pituitary, which promotes the release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex.
90
two glucocorticoids?
cortisol and cortisone
91
Many people who suffer from joint pain are treated with what?
glucocorticoid injections into the joint space to decrease inflammation. additionally, glucocorticoids are used to treat systemic inflammation caused by allergic reactions or autoimmune disease.
92
About Mineralocorticoids:
-Mineralocorticoids are used in salt(Na) and water homeostasis; their most profound effect is on the kidney. - Most important Mineralocorticoid: aldosterone, which increases sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of the nephron. water follows sodium cations into the bloodstream, increasing blood volume and pressure. Since water and sodium ions flow together, plasma osmolarity remains unchanged; this is in contrast to ADH which ONLY increases water reabsorption (decreasing plasma osmolarity). - Aldosterone also decreases the reabsorption of potassium and hydrogen ions in these same segments of the nephrons, promoting their excretion in the urine.
93
Aldosterone is under the control of?
unlike glucocorticoids, aldosterone is under the control of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone system.
94
Describe the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone system:
decreased BP causes (Juxtaglomerular cells) which are in the kidney to secrete renin(which is an enzyme), which cleaves an inactive plasma protein called angiotensinogen, to its active form angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is then converted to Angiotensin II by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in the lung. Angiotensin II stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone. Once BP is restored, there is a decreased drive to stimulate renin release, thus serving as the negative feedback mechanism for this system. -Angiotensin II increases BP
95
Real world: Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors block what?
block the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II, inhibiting vasoconstriction. Therefore, ACE inhibitors are freq prescribed for high BP and congestive heart failure. Vasodilation helps reduce vascular resistance, decreasing the pressure against which the failing heart must pump. ACE inhibitors generic names end with -pril (lisinopril, enalapril, ramipril).
96
Glucose is stored as ?
glycogen
97
The adrenal medulla secretes ?
sympathetic hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine. | they are directly pushed into the bloodstream. both of these hormones are amino-acid derivatives.
98
excess insulin ? insufficient insulin? Increase freq of urination? Increase thirst?
Hypoglycemia, which is ow blood glucose concentration. Hyperglycemia(diabetes mellitus) which is excess glucose in blood *Inthe kidney, excessive glucose in the filtrate will overwhelm the nephrons ability to reabsorb glucose. resulting in its presence in urine. Glucose in the filtrate leads to excess excretion of water and an increase--that is sometimes quite dramatic--in the urine volume. * polyuria polydipsia
99
Type I
-insulin dependent Diabetes mellitus cause by autoimmune destruction of the B-cells of the pancreas, resulting in low or absent insulin production. req reg injections of insulin to prevent hyperglycemia and to permit uptake of glucose into cells.
100
Type II
-non insulin dependent Diabetes mellitus is the result of receptor-level resistance to the effects of insulin. Type II is inherited, partially due to environmental factors, such as high carbohydrate diet and obesity.
101
KEY CONCEPT: to do with glucose levels
- Insulin decreases plasma glucose. - glucagon increase plasma glucose. - Growth hormone, glucocorticoids and epinephrine all increase plasma glucose. these hormones that raise blood glucose levels are commonly called ounterregulatory hormones.

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