Chapter 7 - Memory Flashcards
What is memory illusion?
False but subjectively compelling memory
What is memory?
retention of information over time
What is sensory memory?
brief storage of perceptual information before it is passed to short-term memory
What is iconic memory?
visual sensory memory
What is short-term memory?
memory system that retains information for limited durations
What is decay?
Fading of information from memory over time.
What is interference?
loss of information from memory because of competition from additional information
What are the two types of intereference?
retroactive and proactive
What is retroactive interference?
Interference with retention of old information due to acquisition of new information.
What is proactive interference?
Interference with acquisition of new information due to previous learning of information
What is the magic number?
The span of short-term memory: according to George Miller: seven plus or minus two pieces of information
What is chunking?
organizing information into meaningful groupings, allowing us to extend the span of short-term memory
What is rehearsal?
repeating information to extend the duration of retention in short-term memory and promote the likelihood of transfer to long-term memory
What are the two major types of rehearsal?
maintenance and elaborative
What is maintenance rehearsal?
repeating stimuli in their original from to retain them in short-term memory
What is elaborative rehearsal?
linking stimuli to each other in a meaningful way to improve retention of information in short-term memory
What are the levels of processing?
depth of transforming information, which influences how well we remember it
What is long-term memory?
relatively enduring (from minutes to years) retention of information stored regarding our facts, experiences and skills
What is the primacy effect?
tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well
What is the recency effect?
tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well.
What is the Von Restorff effect?
tendency to remember stimuli that are distinctive or that stick out like sore thumbs from other stimuli
What is serial position effect?
A finding that people recall words in a list better, depending on the order of that list. Items presented early or later in a list are remembered more than those presented in the middle.
What is semantic memory?
our knowledge of facts about the world
What is episodic memory?
recollection of events in our lives
What is explicit memory?
memories we recall intentionally and of which we have conscious awareness
What is implicit memory?
memories we don’t deliberately remember or reflect on consciously
What is procedural memory?
memory for how to do things, including motor skills and habits
What is priming?
our ability to identify a stimulus more easily or more quickly after we’ve encountered similar stimuli
What is encoding?
process of getting information into our memory banks
What is a mnemonic?
a learning aid, strategy, or device that enhances recall
What is storage?
process of keeping information in memory
What is a schema?
organized knowledge structure or mental model that we’ve stored in memory
What is retrieval?
reactivation or reconstruction of experiences from our memory stores
What are retrieval cues?
hints that makes it easier for us to recall information
What is a recall?
generating previously remebered information
What is recognition?
selecting previously remmebered information from an array of options
What is relearning?
Reacquiring knowledge that we’d previously learned but largely forgotten over time
What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?
Experience of knowing that we know something but being unable to access it
What is encoding specificity?
phenomenon of remembering something better when the conditions under which we retrieve information are similar to the conditions under which we encoded it.
What is context-dependent learning?
superior retrieval of memories when the external context of the original memories matches the retrieval context
What is state-dependent-learning?
Superior retrieval of memories when the organism is in the same physiological/psychological state as it was during encoding
What is long-term potentiation?
Long-lasting strengthening of the connections between two neurons after synchronous activation
What is retrograde amnesia?
Loss of memories from our past
What is anterograde amnesia?
Inability to encode new memories from our experiences
What is meta-memory?
Knowledge about our own memory abilties and limitations
What is a flash-bulb memory?
Emotional memory that is extraordinary vivid/detailed
What is source monitoring confusion?
Lack of clarity about the origin of a memory
What is source misaatribution
Memory distortion that occurs when people mis remember the place,time,or circumstances involved in memory
What are the three levels of processing of verbal information?
visual, phonological, semantic
Long term memory errors tend to be _______, based on the meaning of the information received.
semantic
What are the three major processes of memory?
encoding, storage, retrieval
Many of our memory failures are errors of ______?
encoding
Attention plays a crucial role in _______?
encoding
What is the pegword method?
Rhyming mnemonic
To be useful, mnemonics must be ________ a lot.
Practiced
Schemas tend to __________ ___________, leading to the memory paradox.
Oversimplify reality
Many types of forgetting stem from failures in __________.
Retrieval
What is easier? Recall or recongnition?
Recongnition
What are the three methods of measuring memory?
Recall, recognition, relearning
What is the testing effect?
Testing oneself on information one’s learned is more effective than simply going over it repeatedly.
H.M. suffered from what?
anterograde amnesia
What is weapon focus?
When a crime involves a weapon, people tend to focus more on that than the perpetrators’ features.
H.M. had the hippocampi removed. He lost the ability to make __________ but not ________ memories.
i. explicit
ii. implicit
Damage to the amygdala leads to recall of _________ memory and not ________ memory fear stimulus.
i. episodic
ii. semantic
Damage to the hippocampus leads to recall of _________ memory and not ________ memory of fear stimulus.
i. semantic
ii. episodic
What is vicarious reinforcement
Learning through wathching someon else recieve consequences for doing something
What the categories fall under observational learning?
Modeling,Vicarious learning
What is Modeling?
Learning through imitating behaviour we see in others
What is vicarious learning?
Act of learning to engage in behaviour or not after seeing others rewarded or punished for that action
Which case study is associated with a patient experiencing anteregrade amnesia?
Case NA
Which famous patient shows how life would be like without memory?
Patient Clive
How is Patient Clive still able to play the piano?
He uses a different type of memory.
Is Clive missing his explicit or implicit memory?
Explicit(
Which lobe is the explicit memory system located in the brain?
Frontal lobe & Medial temporal lobe
What primary function is the implicit memory system in charge of?
Motor Funciton
What is the basal ganglia?
It is the site of implicit or habit learning activities (ie .. drinking, walking, eating)
Which memory system primarily involves how things are done?
Implicit memory system
Which two memory systems did clive still have?
Emotional and Implicit memory systems.
What are the two types of amnesia?
Retrograde Amnesia and Anterograde Amnesia
What is Retrograde Amnesia?
Poor memory for events that occurred before brain injury, but newer memories created after the injury can be remembered.
What is Anterograde Amnesia?
Memory problems after brain injury. Can recall old events but not learn new ones.
What is the Information Processing Model?
Encoding, storing, and retrieving information model.
What are the two types of sensory memory systems?
Iconic memory system (vision) and Echoic memory system (audition/hearing)
What are the two inner processes used in Short-Term Memory?
Inner Voice (recoding info into inner speech) and Inner Eye (coding info visually using images)
How can short-term memories be prolonged?
Repition and elaborative rehearsal
What are the three components leading into the Central Executive?
Phonological loop (hearing), Visuospatial Sketch Pad (visual/spatial), and Episodic Buffer (integrates self-info)
What is the role of the Central Executive?
It coordinates all new material, directs attention, and creates long-term memory.
What are the two systems of Long-Term Memory?
Explicit (declarative) memory and Implicit (non-declarative) memory.
What is Explicit Memory?
Declarative memory: conscious info you can talk about.
What is Implicit Memory?
Unconscious memory for learned actions.(e.g., brushing teeth,cooking)
What are the subdivisions of Explicit Memory?
Episodic memory (events, specific experiences)
Semantic memory (facts, world knowledge)
What are the subdivisions of Implicit Memory?
Procedral and Priming
Explain Phonemic Encoding!
A form of intermediate processing that is based on the sounds of the word, and if it rhymes with something, etc…
What is Structure Encoding?
Part of Shallow Processing, questions like does the word contain a specific letter? are asked
What is semantic encoding?
Refers to what a word means and what it does, a form of deep processing.
List 4 ways to promote elaboration.
- Think about meaning
- Notice relationships
- Avoid rote-memorization of surface structure
- Notice differences
What does distinctiveness refer to in memory?
refers to how unique something is from other things in memory
What are some 3 strategies to improve memory distinctiveness?
- Form mental pictures
- Space repetitions (distributed practice)
- Consider position in the sequence
What are some 3 strategies to improve distinctiveness?
- Form mental pictures
- Space repetitions (distributed practice)
- Consider position in the sequence
What are other deep processing techniques besides elaboration?
A: Visual Imagery and Self-Referent Encoding
How does the organization of knowledge in long-term memory influence retrieval?
A: It influences what is retrieved and the speed and accuracy of retrieval.
What are 3 examples of knowledge representations in long-term memory?
- Learned schemes and scripts
- Semantic networks
- Learned categories
How do learned schemes and scripts enhance memory and flexible thinking?
A: Through repetition and variations on a theme.
What is the encoding-retrieval match?
The overlap between what you think about during encoding and during retrieval, which improves performance.
