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A&P > Chapter 7 Learning Objectives > Flashcards

Chapter 7 Learning Objectives Flashcards

1
Q

List the functions of the skeletal system; recognize an example of each function

A

-support: supports body shape, muscles, teeth
-protection: brain, spinal cord, heart, lungs
-movement: action of muscle on bone enables limb movement and breathing (rib cage)
-acid base balance: releases calcium carbonate, a buffer that contributes to maintaining homeostasis in the blood
-blood formation: red bone marrow produces new blood cells (hematopoiesis)

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2
Q

what is red bone marrow’s purpose? where is it located for children vs adults?

A

-produces new blood cells (hematopoiesis)
-located in almost every bone in children
-limited to skull, ribs, hips, epiphyses for adults
-also in shafts of long bones, the marrow becomes fatty yellow bone marrow
-located in the marrow cavity of the diaphysis and in spaces between trabeculae of spongy bone

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3
Q

what is bone

A

type of connective tissue which is the space between cells and extracellular matrix

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4
Q

what are the inorganic vs organic parts of the bone matrix?

A

-2/3 of bone tissue is inorganic; 85% hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate salt); 10% calcium carbonate (along with fluoride, Na, MG
-1/3 is organic material’ 90% is collagen protein fibers; 10% GAG, glycoproteins, proteoglycans

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5
Q

Function and dysfunction of inorganic materials of bone

A

-creates strong and rigid bone
-osteomalasia (soft bones/rickets): low calcium due to vitamin d deficiency

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6
Q

function and dysfunction of organic materials in bone

A

-creates flexible bone
-osteogenesis imperfecta: brittle bones from inability to depositing collagen

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7
Q

what is compact bone composed of

A

osteon is structural unit; packed osteons are dense, strong, heavy

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8
Q

where is compact bone located

A

thin outer shell of diaphysis

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9
Q

what is spongy bone composed of

A

-trabeculae: thin plate of bony matrix
-few osteons, space between trabeculae which adds strength but with less weight

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10
Q

where is spongy bone located

A

in the epiphyses of the bone

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11
Q

what is the epiphyses

A

-enlarged ends of long bones

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12
Q

what is the purpose of epiphyses and what is it made of

A

-wideness adds strength for joints and room for ligaments and tendons to attach
-adds less weight because it is mostly spongy bone with a thin shell of compact bone; covered in articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage)

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13
Q

what is the diaphysis

A

-in between the two epiphyses of the bone
-location of the bine marrow cavity

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14
Q

what is the diaphysis composed of

A

-covered by thin, strong layer of compact bone
-hollow in the middle

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15
Q

what is the periosteum

A

-external sheath that covers all bone; sits outside of compact bone layer

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16
Q

differentiate between outer fibrous layer and inner osteogenic layer of the periosteum

A

outer fibrous layer: dense irregular ct (collagen fibers); strong link between a bone and tendon (muscle)
-inner osteogenic layer: bone-forming cells important to growth of bone and healing of fractures are located here

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17
Q

what is the endosteum

A

-thin layer of reticular connective tissue lining the marrow cavity
-another location for bone-forming cells

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18
Q

what is the location of the endosteum

A

-inner lining bony canals and covering trabeculae; lines medullary cavity

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19
Q

what are short bones; where can they be found

A

-type of bone tissue
-equal in length and width
-mostly in carpals (wrist) and tarsals (ankles)

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20
Q

what are flat bones and where can they be found

A

-one of the four types of bone tissue
-curved but wide and thin
-several skull, bones, hip bones, sternum, ribs, scapula

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21
Q

what are long bones and where can they be found

A

-one of the four types of bone tissue
-longer than wide
-many of the bones of the limbs

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22
Q

what are irregular bones and where can you find them

A

-one of the four types of bone tissues
-elaborate shapes that dont fit into any category
-many bones (unity of shape and function)

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23
Q

what are lacunae

A

tiny cavities where osteocytes reside

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24
Q

what are canaliculi

A

cytoplasmic channels that allow communication between lacunae

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25
Q

what are stem cells

A

-cells that are not specialized yet

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26
Q

what is rough er when it comes to osteoblasts

A

-lots of rer because of high collagen levels

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27
Q

what is the resorption bay

A

-where osteoclasts sit; pits on the surfaces of bone
-created by osteoclasts

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28
Q

what is the ruffle border

A

-released material of the bone is taken in through this to become bioavailable

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29
Q

what three cell types are builders in bone formation

A

osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes

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30
Q

what are osteogenic cells?

A

undifferentiated stem cells that multiply continuously to produce new osteoblasts

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31
Q

where are osteogenic cells found?

A

endosteum, periosteum, and central canals of osteon

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32
Q

what are osteoblasts

A

-differentiated and non-mitotic bone-forming cells
-synthesize and secrete collagen (soft organic component of bone matrix)
-have lots of rer because of the collagen; they do not synthesize calcium but are involved in deposition

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33
Q

what is mineral depositon/crystallization in bone formation

A

hardening of bone when hydroxyapatite and other minerals crystalize on the collagen fibers secreted by osteoblasts
-occurs spontaneously because of high mineral concentration

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34
Q

What allows the crystallization of bone?

A

-osteoblasts neutralize inhibitors

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35
Q

what are osteocytes

A

-osteoblasts that become trapped in the hardened matrix they produce can differentiate into osteocytes

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36
Q

what are osteoclasts

A

-involved in bone formation but dissolve bone
-develop from hematopoietic stem cells (not osteogenic)
-formed by the fusion of several stem cells (multinucleated)

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37
Q

where are osteoclasts found

A

sit in resorption bays which are pits on the surfaces of bone

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38
Q

what are osteoclast’s function

A

release materials stored in bone (calcium ions) that are taken in through the ruffle border (microvilli) to become bioavailable

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39
Q

how do osteoclast dissolve hard inorganic materials

A

-osteoclasts secrete hydrogen and negatively charged calcium ions follow by electrical attraction and combine with hydrogen ions to form hydrochloric acid
-HCL is strong acid of ph 4 that dissolves the mineral component

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40
Q

how do osteoclasts dissolve the flexible organic proteins

A

secrete proteolytic enzymes that digests collagen and other proteins

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41
Q

what is intramembranous ossification

A

-produces flat bones of skull; clavicle
-mesenchyme to bone

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42
Q

what is endochondral ossification

A

-cartilage is the precursor to bone
-mesenchyme to cartilage to bone

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43
Q

which bone formation is the most common

A

-endochondral ossification
-produces most of our bones

44
Q

what are the 6 zones of metaphysis

A

zone of reverse cartilage
zone of cell proliferation (hyperplasia)
zone of cell hypertrophy
zone of calcification
zone of bone deposition

45
Q

what is the zone of reverse cartilage

A

typical histology of resting hyaline cartilage

46
Q

what is the zone of cell proliferation (hyperplasia)

A

growth from cell division producing more chondrocytes

47
Q

what is the zone of cell hypertrophy

A

cessation of mitosis; chondrocytes enlarge the lacuna walls get thinner

48
Q

what is the zone of calcification

A

temporary calcification of cartilage matrix between columns of lacunae

49
Q

what is the zone of bone deposition

A

chondrocytes die
osteoclasts breakdown lacuna walls
osteoblasts deposit spongy bone and later compact bone at the perimeter

50
Q

what is interstitial growth

A

-elongation after birth, long bones continue to elongate by endochondral ossification at the metaphysis
-both hyperplasia and hypertrophy occur here

51
Q

what is the metaphysis

A

the area where cartilage is transitioning to bone in endochondral ossification

52
Q

what is hyperplasia

A

growth of tissue by cell division (most common)

53
Q

what is hypertrophy

A

growth of tissue by cellular enlargement (muscle)

54
Q

when does interstitial growth end

A

as long as chondrocytes at the epiphyseal plate divide
plate calcifies aroun 16-20 years old and prevent lengthening

55
Q

what is achondroplastic dwarfism

A

long bones stop growing in childhood especially in the limbs

56
Q

what causes achondroplastic dwarfism

A

cartilage at the epiphyseal plates fail to grow
affects endochondral ossification
spontaneous mutation produces mutant dominant allele

57
Q

what is pituitary dwarfism

A

lack of growth hormone ; typical proportions but short stature

58
Q

what is appositional growth

A

increase in bone diameter that occurs throughout life

59
Q

what role does osteoblasts play in appositional growth

A

deposit new bone (osteoid tissue) on the inner side of the periosteum
layers parallel to the surface to form circumferential lamellae
this adds compact bone to the outer shell

60
Q

what role does osteoclasts play in appositional growth

A

as the bone widens, they dissolve bone tissue to increase the marrow cavity
covert compact bone to spongy
this keeps weigh from increasing too much
it keeps the ratio of the shell to cavity similar

61
Q

what is bone remodeling

A

continuous dissolving and re-building of the bones of our skeleton that occurs through our lives

62
Q

what is wolff’s law of bone

A

the architecture of bone is determined by mechanical stresses placed on it

63
Q

how do osteoblasts play a role in wolff’s law of bone

A

osteoblasts build trabeculae along lines of greater stress
bony processes grow larger in response to mechanical stress

64
Q

what is the importance of calcium in the diet

A

calcium is needed for muscle and nerve function; needed for calcium homeostasis which controls neuron communication, blood clotting, exocytosis, muscle contraction

65
Q

what is absorption of calcium

A

to take into blood or tissues for the first time; nutrients (calcium) from food are absorbed in the small intestine

66
Q

what is the resorption of calcium

A

to put back into the blood or tissues; released calcium is again available for muscle and nerve function

67
Q

what is calcitonin

A

-stimulates osteoblasts and increases their numbers
-inhibits osteoblasts by reducing bone melting

68
Q

in children, is calcitonin or calcium more important in calcium homeostasis

A

calcitonin

69
Q

what is parathyroid hormone (PTH)

A

-raises blood calcium with a loss of bone mass

70
Q

when and why is PTH secreted

A

-parathyroid glands
-blood calcium levels get too low

71
Q

how does PTH raise calcium blood levels

A

-promotes ca2+ reabsorption by kidneys so less is lost in urine
-promotes the final step of calcitriol synthesis in the kidneys which enhance calcium-raising effects of calcitriol
-binds to receptors on osteoblasts, stimulating them to secrete RANKL which raises the osteoclast population
-inhibits bone deposition by inhibiting collagen synthesis by osteoblasts

72
Q

what does calcitriol do

A

raises blood calcium but increases bone density

73
Q

which hormone is neccessary for bone deposition

A

calcitriol

74
Q

how does calcitriol function in the body

A

-keratinocytes in skin (stimulated by UV); liver and kidneys work together to make it
-increases Ca++ absorption by small intestine
-promotes kidney. resorption (less lost in urine)
-doesn’t promote bone resorption (may inhibit osteoclast differentiation

75
Q

what is calcitonin’s function

A

lowers blood calcium

76
Q

what is hypocalcemia

A

calcium deficiency

77
Q

what are the effects of hypocalcemia

A

can cause over-excitability of the nervous and muscular systems which results in muscle spasms, trousseaus, tetany

78
Q

what causes hypocalcemia

A

-diarrhea, pregnancy/lactation, horomonal imbalance (thyroid surgery/tumors)

79
Q

what is hypercalcemia

A

-excessive calcium levels
-rare

80
Q

what are the effects of hypercalcemia

A

-can cause under-excitability of nervous and muscular systems
-results in muscle weakness, reduced neural reflexes, non-repsonsiveness

81
Q

what is osteomalasia

A

inadequate levels of vitamin D resulting in abnormal softeness of bones in adults

82
Q

what is osteogenesis imperfecta

A

-occurs when collegan levels are too low or collagen was abnormally formed
-bones break easily

83
Q

what is the relationship between the zone of reverse cartilage and the epiphyseal plate

A

-occurs in zone of reverse cartilage
-continues as long as chondrocytes at the plate divides

84
Q

what is achondroplastic dwarfism

A

-cartilage at epiphyseal plates fails to grow
-effects endochondral ossification
-long bones stop growing in childhood especially in the limbs

85
Q

what is estrogen’s function in bone building

A

promotes bone building by stimulating osteoblasts and inhibiting osteoclasts

86
Q

how does estrogen relate to bone density

A

-maintains it in both sexes

87
Q

what is osteoporosis

A

-severe loss of bone density and mass

88
Q

how does osteoporosis affect the body

A

-affects spongy bone
-bones become weak due to loss of matrix and minerals

89
Q

what causes osteoporosis

A

-caused by anything that decreases bone mass
-chemotherapy, smoking, diabetes mellitus

90
Q

what is the highest risk factor for osteoporosis

A

-lower estrogen levels because it reduces osteoblasts while increasing osteoclasts

91
Q

what is a pathological fracture

A

-break in a bone weakened by diseases

92
Q

what causes pathological fractures

A

-bone cancer and osteoporosis
-stress that would not break healthy bone

93
Q

what are stress fractures

A

break from abnormal trauma to the bone

94
Q

what causes stress fractures

A

breaks from falls, athletics, military combat

95
Q

what are the types of closed reduction fractures

A

greenstick and nondisplaced

96
Q

what is a greenstick closed reduction fracture

A

bone is incompletely broken on one side and only bent on the other

97
Q

what is nondisplaced closed reduction fractures

A

bones remain in correct anatomical alignment but need to be realigned (set) and stabilize

98
Q

what are the fractures classified by structural characteristics

A

displaced and comminuted

99
Q

what is a displaced fracture

A

at least one piece is misaligned which is likely to require pins or screws

100
Q

what is comminuted fracture

A

bone is broken into three or more pieces which is likely to require pins or screw/open reduction

101
Q

what occurs in the healing of stress fractures

A

hematoma formation then soft callus formation then hard callus formation then bone remodeling

102
Q

what occurs in hematoma formation of a stress fracture

A

hematoma is concerted to granulation tissue by invasion of cells and blood capillaries

103
Q

what occurs in soft callus formation of a stress fracture

A

granulation tissue is replaced as chondrocytes make a soft, fibrocartilage callus. this will help to join and stabilize the broken pieces of bone

104
Q

what occurs in hard callus formation of a stress fracture

A

osteoblasts deposit a temporary bony collar around the fracture to better unite and stabilize the broken pieces

105
Q

what occurs in bone remodeling of a stress fracture

A

osteoclasts remove small bone fragments and osteoblasts deposit spongy and compact bone to restore the bone structure

A&P (3 decks)

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