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PSYC 100A > Chapter 7: Learning > Flashcards

Chapter 7: Learning Flashcards

1
Q

What is learning?

A

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviours.

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2
Q

Why do we learn?

A
  • Adapt to our environment
  • Expect and prepare for significant events, such as food or pain (classical conditioning)
  • Repeat acts that bring rewards, avoid acts that bring unwanted results (operant conditioning)
  • Grasp new behaviours by observation (cognitive learning)
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3
Q

How do we learn?

A

Association - connecting events that occur in sequence.

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4
Q

Learned associations feed our ________ behaviours.

A

Habitual.

As we repeat behaviours in a given context, they become associated with the contexts.
Our next experience of the context then evokes the habitual response.

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5
Q

Learned association works in both ________ habits and ______ habits.

A

Good, bad

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6
Q

What is associative learning?

A

Linking two events that occur close together.

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7
Q

The process of learning associations is _____________.

A

Conditioning

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8
Q

What are the two main forms of conditioning?

A

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
We learn to associate two stimuli, and thus to anticipate events.
**Biologically adaptive

OPERATE CONDITIONING
We learn to associate a response (our behaviour) and its consequence.

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9
Q

What type of behaviour does classical conditioning elicit?

A

RESPONDENT BEHAVIOUR: We associate stimuli that we do not control and respond to them automatically.

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10
Q

What type of behaviour does operant conditioning elicit?

A

OPERANT BEHAVIOUR: We repeat acts that have given good results, avoid acts that have given bad results.

Behaviour that OPERATE on the environment to produce rewarding/punishing stimuli = Operant behaviour

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11
Q

What is cognitive learning?

A

Acquiring mental information that guides our behaviour.

-Observational learning

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12
Q

What was behaviourism’s view of learning?

A
  • Study how organisms respond to stimuli in their environments
  • Prediction, control of behaviour: No focus on introspection, mental processes
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13
Q

What was Pavlov’s classic experiment in classical conditioning?

A

He presented a neutral stimulus (tone) just before an unconditioned stimulus (food in mouth).

The neutral stimulus then became a conditioned stimulus, producing a conditioned response.

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14
Q

How does classical conditioning work? What are its steps?

A

Before conditioning…

US –> UR
NS –> No response

During conditioning…

NS + US –> UR
The US is repeatedly presented just after the NS, aka US –> UR.

After conditioning…

CS –> CR
The previously NS alone produces a CR, becoming a CS.

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15
Q 
Conditioned = \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Unconditioned = \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
A

Learned

Unlearned

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16
Q

Classical conditioning: Acquisition

A

Initial stage of learning, where one links a NS and US so that the NS begins triggering the CR.

Strengthening of the CR.

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17
Q

Classical conditioning: Extinction

A

Diminished response that occurs when the CS no longer signals an impending US.

Presenting the CS without the US - diminishing strength of CR, suppression.

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18
Q

Classical conditioning: Spontaneous recovery

A

Reappearance of a weakened CR after a pause.

‘Spontaneous’ rise in strength of CR, followed by the second period of extinction.

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19
Q

Classical conditioning: Generalization

A

The tendency to respond likewise to stimuli similar to the CS.

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20
Q

Classical conditioning: Discrimination

A

Learned ability to distinguish between a CS (which predicts the US) and other irrelevant stimuli.

= Being able to recognize slightly different stimuli, to elicit different responses

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21
Q

What is higher-order conditioning?

A

A new NS can become a new CS without the presence of a US.

The NS becomes associated with a previous CS.

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22
Q

Why does Pavlov’s work on classical conditioning remain important?

A

Finding that many other responses, to many other stimuli, can be classically conditioned in many other organisms!

Shows how a process, such as learning, can be studied objectively.

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23
Q

How did Watson apply Pavlov’s principles to learned fears?

A

According to Watson, human emotions and behaviours, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses!

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24
Q

What is the “Little Albert” experiment?

A

In which an 11-month-old, like many others, feared loud noises initially, but not white rats.

Watson and Rayner present a white rat, and as Albert reaches over to touch it, a hammer is struck against a steel bar. After repeatedly seeing the rat, then experiencing the loud noise, Albert bursts into tears at the mere sight of the rate.

He had also generalized this startled fear reaction to the sight of other animals (similar objects).

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25
Q

What is Skinner’s work elaborated upon?”

A

Thorndike’s LAW OF EFFECT: Rewarded behaviour is likely to recur, punished behaviour is less likely to recur.

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26
Q

What is the Skinner box?

A

A box that has a bar (lever) that an animal presses or a key that the animal pecks, to release a reward of food or water.

27
Q

What is Skinner’s concept of reinforcement?

A

In which an event strengthens (increases the frequency of) a preceding response.

Example: Paycheque for human beans.

28
Q

What is Skinner’s concept of reinforcement?

A

In which an event strengthens (increases the frequency of) a preceding response.

Any consequence that strengthens behaviour.
Example: Paycheque for human beans.

29
Q

Operant conditioning: Shaping

A

Gradually guiding an anima’s actions towards the desired behaviour.

Method of successive approximations, through which you reward responses that are ever closer to the final desired behaviour and ignore all other responses.

Rewards become CONTINGENT on desired behaviours.

30
Q

Operant conditioning: Positive/negative reinforcement

A

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT: Strengthens response by ADDING (presenting) a desirable stimulus after a response.

e.g. Petting a dog that comes when you call it.

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: Strengthens response by REMOVING (reducing) an aversive stimulus.

e.g. Taking painkillers to end pain.

31
Q

Negative reinforcement is not _________.

A

Punishment!!

It is something providing relief.

32
Q

What are primary reinforcers?

A

Unlearned reinforcers, such as getting food when hungry, having a headache go away = Innately satisfying.

The innately reinforcing stimulus that satisfies a biological need.

33
Q

What are conditioned reinforcers (secondary reinforcers)?

A

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer.

34
Q

What are immediate reinforcers?

A

Presenting the reward immediately after the animal performs the “wanted” behaviour.

35
Q

What are delayed reinforcers?

A

Presenting the reward sometime after the animal performs the “wanted” behaviour.

36
Q

What is a reinforcement schedule?

A

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

37
Q

What is continuous reinforcement? What are its pros/cons?

A

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Learning occurs rapidly, which makes it the best choice for mastering a behaviour.

Extinction occurs rapidly too! When reinforcement stops, the behaviour stops too.

38
Q

What is a partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule?

A

Reinforcing a response only part of the time.

Learning is slower to appear.

Resistance to extinction is greater than with continuous reinforcement.

39
Q

What are the four scheduled of partial reinforcement?

A

FIXED-RATIO SCHEDULE
Reinforce a behaviour after a set number of responses.
“Every so many”

VARIABLE-RATIO SCHEDULE
Provide reinforcers after a seemingly unpredictable number of responses.
Produces a high rate of responses, as reinforcers increase as the number of responses increase.
“After an unpredictable number”

FIXED-INTERVAL SCHEDULES
Reinforce the first response after a fixed time period.
The tendency to respond more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near = Choppy stop-start pattern, not a steady rate of response.
“Every so often”

VARIABLE-INTERVAL SCHEDULE
Reinforce the first response after varying time intervals.
Tend to produce slow, steady responses = Not knowing when the waiting will be over.
“Unpredictably often”

40
Q

When are response rates higher?

A

When using a RATIO schedule (reinforcement linked to the number of responses), rather than to an INTERVAL schedule (reinforcement linked to time).

41
Q

When is responding more consistent?

A

When using a VARIABLE schedule (unpredictable reinforcement) than to a FIXED schedule (predictable reinforcement).

42
Q

What is the difference between reinforcement and punishment?

A

Punishment DECREASES the frequency of a behaviour, while reinforcement INCREASES the behaviour.

43
Q

What are the two ways in which we can decrease behaviour?

A

Positive punishment: Administer something that is undesired.

Negative punishment: End something that is desired.

44
Q

What are four major drawbacks of physical punishment in parenting?

A
  1. Punished behaviour = Suppressed, NOT forgotten. This may negatively reinforce parents’ punishing behaviour.
  2. Punishment teaches discrimination among situations.
    The child can adapt their behaviour according to the context.
  3. Punishment can teach fear.
  4. Physical punishment may increase aggression, by modelling aggression as a way to cope with problems.
45
Q

What is more preferable, punishment or reinforcement?

A

Reinforcement, as it notices what someone is doing right and affirms them for it.

46
Q

How can operant conditioning be applied in school?

A

Individually paced instruction with immediate feedback = Adaptive learning

47
Q

How can operant conditioning be applied in sports?

A

Reinforce small successes initially, then gradually increase the challenge.

48
Q

How can operant conditioning be applied at work?

A
  • Sharing the risks and rewards of company ownerships

- Reward desired performance, especially specific, achievable behaviours.

49
Q

How can operant conditioning be applied at home?

A

Give children attention and other reinforcers when they are behaving well.

Target a specific behaviour.

50
Q

How can operant conditioning be applied in ourselves?

A
  • State a realistic goal in measurable terms.
  • Decide how, when, and where you will work toward your goal.
  • Monitor how often you engage in your desired behaviour.
  • Reinforce the desired behaviour
  • Reduce the rewards gradually
51
Q

Compare classical (CC) & operant conditioning (OC), in regards to…

  • Basic idea
  • Response
  • Acquisition
  • Extinction
  • Spontaneous recovery
  • Generalization
  • Discrimination
A

CC

  • Basic idea: Organism associates events
  • Response: Involuntary, automatic
  • Acquisition: Associating events: NS + US => CS
  • Extinction: CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone
  • Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR.
  • Generalization: Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.
  • Discrimination: Learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a US.

OC

  • Basic idea: Organism associates behaviour and resulting events.
  • Response: Voluntary, operates on environment.
  • Acquisition: Associating response with consequence - reinforcer or punisher.
  • Extinction: Responding decreases when reinforcement stops.
  • Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished response.
  • Generalization: Organism’s response to similar stimuli is also reinforced.
  • Discrimination: Organism learns that certain responses, but not others, will be reinforced.
52
Q

What are the limits on classical conditioning?

A

-An animal’s capacity for conditioning is constricted by its biology! Environments are NOT the whole story.

NATURAL SELECTION FAVOURS TRAITS THAT AID SURVIVAL. We tend to learn behaviours favoured by natural selection.

  • It is not necessary that the US must immediately follow the CS for conditioning to occur.
  • Not every perceivable stimulus can serve as a CS.
  • We are biologically prepared to learn some associations rather than others.
53
Q

What are the limits on operant conditioning?

A

-We most easily learn and retain behaviours that reflect our biological predispositions.

54
Q

How do cognitive processes affect classical conditioning?

A
  • Animals can learn the PREDICTABILITY of an event.
  • The more predictable the association, the stronger the conditioned response.
  • Conditioned likes/dislikes are even stronger when people notice and are aware of the associations they have learned.
55
Q

How do cognitive processes affect operant conditioning?

A
  • Animals on a fixed-interval reinforcement schedule respond more frequently when the reinforced response approached = Expectations
  • Rats exploring a maze develop a cognitive map - a mental representation of the environment.
  • Latent learning, which occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
  • Rewards are limiting! Excessive rewards can destroy intrinsic motivation, while they can assist in extrinsic motivation.
56
Q

Summary: Biological and cognitive influences on classical conditioning

A

Cognitive processes: Organisms develop an expectation that the CS signals the arrival of US.

Biological predispositions: Natural predispositions constrain what stimuli & responses can be easily associated with.

57
Q

Summary: Biological and cognitive influences on operant conditioning

A

Cognitive processes: Organisms develop expectations that a response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement.

Biological predispositions: Organisms most easily learn behaviours similar to their natural behaviours, with unnatural behaviours instinctively drifting back toward natural ones.

58
Q

What is observational learning?

A

Learning without direct experience - by watching and imitating others = MODELING process,

59
Q

What happens when we undergo modeling?

A

By watching a model…

  • We experience vicarious reinforcement/punishment;
  • We learn to anticipate a behaviour’s consequence in situations like those we are observing

Vicarious = Indirect

60
Q

What are mirror neurons?

A

A neural basis for everyday imitation and observational; these neurons are located in the frontal lobe.

Some scientists believe they fire when performing certain actions/when observing another doing so.

61
Q

Why does the brain like to mirror another’s action?

A

It may enable imitation and empathy (theory of mind).

62
Q

At what ages do humans tend to over imitate?

A

From the ages of 2-5! The human predisposition to learn from watching adults is SO strong.

63
Q

What is the impact of prosocial and antisocial modeling?

A

Prosocial models = Positive, helpful models that can exemplify good behaviours! This prompts others to employ similar behaviours.

Antisocial models would include those bringing about the ‘violence-viewing effect’

64
Q

When are models are most effective?

A

When their actions and their words are consistent.

PSYC 100A (7 decks)

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