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PSYC 100A > Chapter 1: Thinking Critically > Flashcards

Chapter 1: Thinking Critically Flashcards

1
Q

Why can we not rely solely on intuition and common sense?

A

Three phenomena illustrate this:

  • Hindsight bias
  • Overconfidence
  • Tendency to perceive patterns in random events
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2
Q

What is intuition?

A

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

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3
Q

What is the hindsight bias?

A

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome to a situation, that the outcome seemed familiar and therefore obvious - we could have foreseen it.

“I knew it all along!”

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4
Q

What is overconfidence?

A

The tendency to think we know more than what we do.

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5
Q

Why do we perceive patterns?

A

In our natural eagerness to make sense of the world, random sequences often don’t look random!

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6
Q

Hindsight bias, overconfidence, and our tendency to perceive patterns in random events lead to ___________ our intuition.

A

Overestimating

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7
Q

What are the scientific attitude’s three main components?

A

CURIOSITY = Passion to explore and understand, without misleading and being misled.

SKEPTICISM = Challenging opinions, questions.

**Curious skepticism: Doubting, by asking ‘What do you mean? How do you know?’

HUMILITY = Awareness of our own vulnerability to error; openness to surprises and new perspectives.

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8
Q

What is critical thinking?

A
  • Examining assumptions
  • Appraising the source
  • Discerning hidden values
  • Evaluating evidence
  • Assessing conclusions
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9
Q

Critical thinking ________ accept arguments and conclusions.

A

Critical thinking does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions.

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10
Q

Critical thinkers consider the ________ of sources.
They recognize ________ perspectives.
They ________ themselves to challenging sources vs their preconceived ideas.

A

Credibility
Multiple
Expose

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11
Q

What is a theory?

A

A theory explains behaviours or events, by offering ideas that organize what we have observed

= Simplification, summary, coherent picture

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12
Q

What are hypotheses?

A

Testable predictions, often implied by a theory.

They specify what results would support the theory, and what results would disconfirm it =>
Confirm? Revise/Reject?

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13
Q

What is the relationship between our theories and our observations?

A

Our theories can bias our observations!

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14
Q

What is an operational definition?

A

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.

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15
Q

What is replication?

A

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

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16
Q

If in replicating, similar results are obtained, what happens to the reliability of the theory?

A

It grows!

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17
Q

What is the scientific method (its steps)?

A

Theories –> Hypotheses –> Research and observations –> Confirm, reject, revise theories

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18
Q

What makes a theory useful?

A
  • It ORGANIZES a range of self-reports and observations;
  • It implies PREDICTIONS that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive practical applications
  • It stimulates further research leading to a better-revised theory.
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19
Q

What methods can we use to test our hypotheses and refine our theories?

A
  • Descriptive methods
  • Correlational methods
  • Experimental methods
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20
Q

Descriptive method: Case study

A

Examines one individual or group in depth in the hope of revealing things true of us all.

They often suggest directions for further study.

However, atypical individual cases may mislead us = Unrepresentative information = Mistaken judgments, false conclusions

We should not discern the general truths that cover individual cases!

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21
Q

Descriptive method: Naturalistic observation

A

Observing and recording behaviour in naturally-occurring situations, without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

They DESCRIBE behaviour, without explaining it!

As well, they do not control all the factors that may have influenced the behaviour in check.

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22
Q

Descriptive method: Survey

A

Obtains the self-reported attitudes or behaviours of a particular group, by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

However, there may be wording effects!

23
Q

How do we obtain a representative sample, one that represents the total population?

A

Seeking a RANDOM SAMPLE, in which every person within the group has an equal chance of participating.

24
Q

Can you compensate for an unrepresentative sample by adding more people?

A

NO!

25
Q

What is correlation?

A

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

26
Q

What is the correlation coefficient?

A

A statistical index of the relationship between two things, ranging from -1.00 to +1.00.

-1.00 = Perfect negative correlation
0.00 = No relationship
+1.00 = Perfect positive correlation

27
Q

What are scatterplots?

A

Graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.

The slope of the points suggests the DIRECTION of the relationship between the two variables;

The amount of scatter suggests the STRENGTH of the correlation.

28
Q

What is an illusory correlation?

A

When we believe there is a relationship between two things, we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our belief.

29
Q

What is the statistical phenomenon of the regression toward the mean?

A

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores/events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

30
Q

Why do correlations enable prediction, but not cause-effect explanation?

A

We are not sure whether the presence of a third factor can explain the correlation.

31
Q

What is an experiment?

A

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe their effect on some behaviour or mental process (dependent variable).

32
Q

What is an experimental group?

A

Group that is exposed to the treatment, being one version of the independent variable

33
Q

What is a control group?

A

Group that is not exposed to the treatment, serving as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

34
Q

What is random assignment?

A

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing pre-existing differences between the different groups.

35
Q

What is the difference between a correlational study and an experiment?

A

Correlation studies uncover NATURALLY occurring relationships, while an experiment MANIPULATES a factor to determine its effect.

36
Q

What is a double-blind procedure?

A

In which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the participants have received the treatment or a placebo.

37
Q

What is the placebo effect?

A

Experimental results caused by expectations alone;
Any effect on behaviour caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

38
Q

What is the independent variable?

A

The factor that is being manipulated, the variable whose effect is being studied.

39
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect, influence the results of the experiment.

40
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A

The outcome that is being measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

41
Q

How do we compare the laboratory environment to reality?

A

It is a SIMPLIFIED REALITY, simulating and controlling important features of everyday life.

42
Q

What is an experiment’s purpose?

A

To test theoretical principles!

It focuses less on particular behaviours, but rather seeks general principles that can help explain many behaviours.

43
Q

Why do psychologists study animals?

A

-They find them fascinating, and they are often more simple systems that can reveal much about the human.

44
Q

What are the ethical concerns of animal studies?

A
  • Is it right to place the well-being of humans above that of the animals?
  • What safeguards should protect the well-being of animals in research?
45
Q

What is informed consent?

A

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

46
Q

What is debriefing?

A

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

47
Q

What is the importance of values in research?

A

Values affect what we study, how we study it, and how we interpret results.

Our preconceptions can bias our observations and interpretations.

48
Q

What are the measures of central tendency?

A

MODE: Most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

MEAN: Arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

MEDIAN: Middle score in a distribution, with half the scores above it, half the scores below it.

49
Q

What does it mean when a distribution is skewed?

A

When the mean is biased by a few extreme scores.

50
Q

What are the measures of variation?

A

RANGE: Difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

STANDARD DEVIATION: Computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean. Are they packed together, or dispersed?

51
Q

What is a normal curve?

A

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data.

Most scores fall near the mean (68% within one SD), and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

52
Q

How can we decide when it is safe to generalize from a sample?

A
  1. Representative samples are better than biased samples.
  2. Less-variable observations are more reliable than more-variable observations.
  3. More cases are better than fewer.
53
Q

What is statistical significance?

A

A measure of how likely a result obtained occurred by chance.

A difference has statistical significance when sample averages are reliable, and when the difference between them is relatively large.

LIKELIHOOD that a result will happen by chance. Does not say anything about the IMPORTANCE of the result.

PSYC 100A (7 decks)

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