Chapter 7: Learning Flashcards
Which of the following is an example of negative punishment?
A) You scold your dog for chewing up a plant.
B) You get grounded for a week for leaving the car windows open in the rain.
C) You take out the garbage so your brother will stop nagging at you.
D) You do your homework so your parents will give you the $5 they promised.
B) You get grounded for a week for leaving the car windows open in the rain
Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a(n) ________ stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a(n) ________ stimulus that would elicit the same response naturally.
A) unconditioned; conditioned
B) neutral; unconditioned
C) unconditioned; neutral
D) conditioned; neutral
B) neutral; unconditioned
Marco shoveled his neighbour’s walk because he knew she was ill. She thanked him effusively and praised him to the other neighbours, telling them all what a good person Marco was. Consequently, the next time it snowed, Marco went over to shovel his neighbour’s walk again. In this example, the praise and compliments Marco received served as a
A) positive reinforcer.
B) negative reinforcer.
C) conditioned stimulus.
D) conditioned response.
A) positive reinforcer
In a process known as systematic desensitization phobic individuals
A) are gradually exposed to the feared object or situation.
B) are taught avoidance techniques to reduce anxiety.
C) slowly generalize the feared object to include non-feared objects.
D) directly face the most feared object.
A) are gradually exposed to the feared object of situation
If a capuchin sees another monkey get a more desirable reward for the same task the monkey will react by refusing to carry out the same task unless an identical reward is offered. This is evidence of
A) classical conditioning.
B) vicarious learning.
C) operant conditioning.
D) modeling.
B) vicarious learning
Ms. Meade gives the children in her grade one class a sticker if she goes by their desks and they are in their seats focused on their work. The children can trade these stickers for extra outside time or play corner time and so on. Ms. Meade is using
A) shaping.
B) behaviour modification.
C) continuous reinforcement.
D) learned helplessness.
B) behaviour modification
Amir has an exaggerated, irrational fear of needles. This fear is called a ________. It is associated with increased brain activity in the ________.
A) neurosis; amygdala
B) neurosis; hypothalamus
C) phobia; amygdala
D) phobia; hypothalamus
C) phobia; amygdala
On average, people leave 25% of their money in Nevada casinos. They keep playing, however, due to reinforcement being delivered on a ________ schedule.
A) variable ratio
B) fixed ratio
C) fixed interval
D) variable interval
A) variable ratio
Tanner has ________. He has difficulty counting numbers accurately, recalling math symbols, doing word problems, or understanding graphs.
A) dysgraphia
B) a reading disorder
C) dyscalculia
D) a writing disorder
C) dyscalculia
Pay cheques and grades are delivered on a ________ schedule of reinforcement.
A) variable-interval
B) fixed-ratio
C) fixed-interval
D) variable-ratio
C) fixed-interval
What is learning?
Learning: Lasting change as a result of practice, study, or
experience. It has to be inferred from behaviour.
Two types of learning
- Non-associative learning - learning that does not involve forming
associations between stimuli; it is change resulting from
experiences with a single sensory cue - Associative learning – a change as a result of experience where two
or more stimuli become linked
Non-Associative Learning
- Habituation - weakening of response to a stimulus after repeated
presentation - Dishabituation - a form of non-associative learning whereby there is a
recovery of attention to a novel stimulus following habituation - Sensitization - a strong stimulus results in an exaggerated response to
the subsequent presentation of weaker stimuli
Associative Learning:
Associative learning - connections are formed
more stimuli
- Classical conditioning
- Operant conditioning
between two or
Classical Conditioning
- Unconditioned stimulus (US) - a stimulus that on its own elicits a
response (i.e., food) - Unconditioned response (UR) - a physical response elicited by an
unconditioned stimulus; it does not need to be learned (i.e.,
salivation)
Ivan Pavlov’s Dog
Pavlov’s experiment for collecting and measuring salivation in dogs The
hungry dog is placed in a harness and given a bowl of meat powder. A tube
from the salivary gland collects the saliva, which is measured and
recorded.
Stimuli and Response in Classical Conditioning
- Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that elicits a response from an
organism naturally (i.e., without conditioning)
– Example: meat powder presented to a dog - Unconditioned response (UCR): an unlearned response to an unconditioned
stimulus
– Example: salivation in response to meat powder - Orienting reflex: an unlearned response in which an organism attends to a
stimulus
– Example: dog looking in the direction of bell/light (CS)
Major Conditioning Processes:
- Acquisition - the initial learning of the stimulus-response
relationship; the most rapid acquisition followed by the
strongest response is a half a minute delay between CS and
US - Extinction - reduction of a conditioned response after
repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus alone - Spontaneous recovery - re-emergence of a conditioned
response some time after extinction has occurred
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
E.g., Child learns to associate sound of car entering driveway with Parents
coming home
* Extinction: the process by which conditioned stimuli lose the ability to elicit
conditioned responses
*The conditioned stimuli are no longer associated with unconditioned stimuli.
e.g., sound of car (CS) entering driveway
Child no longer happy as has seemingly forgotten association of CS with UCS
*Actually, Extinction inhibits the response;
* The CR response available under right conditions
- Spontaneous recovery: the recurrence of an extinguished response as
a function of the passage of time - Spontaneous recovery helps organisms adapt to situations that
recur from time to time.
e.g., After long period, of time child hears sound of car (CS),would
associate
with sounds of parent’s homecoming and is happy - Something had changed when no car entered the driveway for so
long. - Spontaneous recovery helps organisms adapt to situations that
recur time to time.
Generalization and Discrimination
- Generalization: the tendency for the conditioned response to be
evoked by stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus - Example: If you are bitten by a dog, you may fear all dogs.
- Discrimination: the tendency for the conditioned response to be
evoked by only the conditioned stimulus and not by similar stimuli - Example: If you are bitten by a Rottweiler, you may fear Rottweilers
but not poodles.
Major Conditioning Processes
- Stimulus discrimination - an organism learns to emit a specific
behaviour in the presence of a stimulus, but not in the presence
of stimuli similar to the original stimulus - Higher-order conditioning - occurs when a previously
conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned
stimulus for further conditioning
Phobia
persistent, irrational or obsessive fear of a specific object
or situation that may arise as a result of fear conditioning
Systematic desensitization
a process used to condition extinction
of phobias through gradual exposure to the feared object or
situation
Classical Conditioning and Taste Aversion
Conditioned taste aversion - a form of classical conditioning
where a previously neutral stimulus (often an odour or taste)
elicits an aversive reaction after it’s paired with illness (nausea)
Operant Conditioning and behaviourism
- Behaviourism - the systematic study and manipulation
of observable behavior
o Founded by B.F. Skinner - Organisms don’t simply respond to the environment, but rather they
exert influence (or “operate”) on it. - Behaviours that are followed by favourable consequences will likely
be repeated.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning - a form of associative learning where
behaviour is modified depending on its consequences
Law of effect
behaviours leading to rewards are more likely to occur
again, while behaviours producing unpleasantness are less likely to
occur again
B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
- Used reinforcement (reward) to train pigeons to peck at targets during WWII
- Reinforce: to follow a response with a stimulus that increases the frequency of
the response - Operant conditioning: a simple form of learning in which an organism learns to
engage in certain behaviour because it is reinforced - In operant conditioning, voluntary responses are acquired, or conditioned.
Types of Reinforcers
- A reinforcer is any stimulus that increases the probability that responses
preceding it will be repeated. - Any stimulus that increases the frequency of a behaviour
Types of Reinforcers
- A positive reinforcer is a reinforcer that when presented increases the frequency
of an operant behaviour preceding it. - A negative reinforcer is a reinforcer that when removed increases the frequency
of an operant behaviour preceding it. It strengthens the likelihood of a
particular response, but by removing an undesirable consequence.
Punishment
- Punishment: an aversive event or unpleasant stimulus that suppresses or
decreases the frequency of the behaviour it follows - Positive punishment: a type of punishment that involves the presentation of
an unpleasant stimulus.
e.g., Student is texting in class, gets detention, decreases texting behavior - Negative punishment: a type of punishment that involves the removal of a
pleasant stimulus
e.g., Student is texting in class, remove student’s phone, decreases texting
behavior. Punishment can encourage escape and avoidance learning.
Primary and Secondary reinforcers
- Primary reinforcers - a stimulus that has survival value and
is therefore intrinsically rewarding.
o Examples: food, water, termination of pain. - Secondary reinforcers - a neutral stimulus that becomes rewarding
when associated with a primary reinforcer.
e.g., Working earns money, which can be used for food and comfort.
Types of punishers
- Primary punisher - a stimulus that is naturally aversive to an
organism.
o Slapping, electric shock, extreme temperatures. - Secondary punisher - a stimulus that becomes aversive when
associated with a primary punisher.
o Disapproval, criticism, bad grades.
Punishment
- Punishment can get rid of bad behaviour; however, to be effective, three
factors should be considered: - Timing: It should be applied immediately following the misbehaviour.
- Intensity: The punishment should not exceed the crime.
- Consistency: It should be applied every time the misbehaviour occurs.
Schedules of Reinforcement
- Continuous reinforcement: a schedule of reinforcement in which every
correct response is reinforced. Behaviour is reinforced every single time. - E.g., Every time put money in (behavior), you receive candy in return (positive
reinforcement) - Advantage: Training occurs more quickly.
- Partial reinforcement: a schedule of reinforcement in which not every correct
response is reinforced. In which only sometimes the behaviour is reinforced.
Slower learning, but less chance of extinction. - Several possible schedules of intermittent or partial schedule of reinforcement.
- E.g., Slot machines at casinos operate on partial schedules. They provide money (positive
reinforcement) after an unpredictable number of plays (behavior). - Advantage: Behaviours are harder to extinguish.
Schedules of Reinforcement
- Ratio schedule
o Fixed ratio schedule - Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses.
- High rate of responding but with pauses.
o Variable ratio schedule
* Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable, average number of responses.
* High, steady rate of responding.
Shaping:
- Shaping: a procedure for teaching complex behaviours that reinforces
approximation of the desired behaviour - Involves reinforcing progressive steps toward the behavioural goal
- Successive approximations: behaviours that are progressively closer to
a target behaviou
Behaviour modification
Behaviour modification - a systematic approach to
change behaviour using principles of operant
conditioning
o Teaching new academic, athletic, or social skills
o Modifying undesirable behaviours
Applications of Operant Conditioning
Behaviour Modification in the Classroom: Accentuating the Positive:
* Behaviour modification techniques are included in teacher training and used to
assist students
in acquiring effective behaviour.
- Applied behavioural analysis (ABA) intervention techniques are used to assist
children with a range of behavioural disabilities. - Teachers use token economies—where desirable behaviours are reinforced
with tokens that can be exchanged for rewards
Observational Learning:
- Observational learning or social learning - occurs without overt
training in response to watching the behaviour of others, called
models - Modelling - occurs when an observer learns from the behaviour
of another
Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura and his colleagues (1963) showed that we can acquire knowledge
and skills by observational learning—observing the behaviour of others (models)
rather than by means of direct experience.
Modelling Violence and Aggression: Media Influences
Bandura: Effects of Violence in the Media
* In a classic experiment, Bandura showed how aggressive adult models are
imitated by children.
* Observing violence and aggression in the media tends to be glamorized.
* In the majority of violent TV shows, there is no remorse, criticism, or penalty for
violent behaviour.
Bobo Doll Experiment
Aggressive Modelling
* Bandura found that children learned to abuse an inflatable clown
doll by observing an adult model hit the doll.
Vicarious Learning:
- Vicarious learning - occurs when an individual observes the
consequences to another’s actions and then chooses to duplicate
the behaviour or refrain from doing so - The children who saw the video in which beating up the Bobo
doll led to rewards to the model, such as candy and praise,
were more likely to act aggressively toward the doll than those
who observed the model beating up Bobo (Bandura, Ross &
Ross, 1963)
Learning and Cognition- Learning without reinforcement
Implicit learning - refers to the acquisition of information without awareness (e.g., learning
to talk or to walk)
E.g., Dr. Brenda Milner’s patient H.M had intact implicit memory (e.g., learned to draw by implicit
learning) but impaired explicit memory.
Spatial navigation learning: learning that involves forming associations among stimuli relevant
to navigating in space.
Latent learning - occurs without reinforcement and is not used until called for; it is not a
result of conditioning. [Definition in textbook is incorrect.]
E.g., A student watches a lesson about solving linear equations and can later demonstrate the knowledge
during an important test.
Insight learning - a sudden realization of a solution to a problem or leap in understanding
new concepts
Factors that facilitate learning- Timing
- Timing
o Multiple exposures separated by time facilitate learning facts.
e.g., Cramming information before a test and exam will not able to retention of information as
there is not enough time for rehearsal.
- Timing
Factors that facilitate learning- Context Effect
- Context Effect
Context effect: If you learn information in only one context (for example in
the classroom) you may be less likely to recall it when you are in a different
location (at a job interview or while taking standardized test for graduate or
professional school)
o Studying in several different locations increases the likelihood that you will form
strong memories about the information. Why ?If we learn the information in
multiple locations, then that knowledge may be less tied to the place in which it
was acquired, and it may be more readily recalled later.
o E.g., if learn information only in the classroom, you will less likely to recall it in a
different location such as while taking a standardized test for graduate or professional
school.
Factors that Facilitate Learning- 3. Awareness and attention
- Awareness and attention
o Multi-tasking reduces overall performance. E.g., Driving
and talking at the same time
o Some types of learning can occur without awareness.
o If information is inherently contradictory, attending to
one stimulus can block our ability to attend to the
relevant stimulus.
- Awareness and attention
Stroop Effect
The stroop task is difficult because it
is easier for us to more quickly and
automatically read words than it is
to name colours, and that automatic
process interferes with the more
effortless task of naming the word
(Kiyonaga, & Egner, 2014)
Social Media and Multitasking
- Facebook
o Students who use Facebook while they study get lower
grades than those who don’t.
o Students who use social media in class tend to have
lower grade point averages and fewer study hours.
Prenatal and Postnatal Learning
- Prenatal learning
o Non-associative learning before infants are born (infant is in womb) - Exhibit habituation and sensitization to sensory stimuli.
- Infants who had been prenatally exposed to garlic—through their mothers’
digestion—showed evidence, after they were born, of recognizing the garlic
odour. They did not try to avoid the smell, as babies new to garlic typically do
(Schaal, 2016).
o Basic associative learning before infants are born (infant is in womb) - Can be classically conditioning.
- Postnatal learning
- Infant imitation
Research on Prenatal learning: Classical conditioning of human fetuses
- Researchers paired specific music (initially a neutral stimulus) with relaxation
exercises done by the mother. - The maternal relaxation exercises served as an unconditioned stimulus, often
leading to a slowing of fetal physical activity (an unconditioned response). - After enough pairings of the music and the relaxation, the music became a
conditioned stimulus, leading directly to a decrease in fetal movement (CR),
with or without the relaxation exercises (see Gebuza et al., 2016 for review).
Specific Learning Disorders:
Learning Disorder - a specific deficiency in one aspect of cognitive
function while other aspects function normally.
* Dyslexia: A deficiency in learning to read. Some evidence for visual
processing deficits that produce perceptual problems.
* Dyscalculia:Difficulty with performing simple mathematical
equations.
* Dysgraphia: Impairment in ability to create the written word.
- Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which
Question options:
A) a behaviour is encoded by watching a model.
B) the magnitude of the response decreases with each subsequent exposure to a stimulus.
C) a consequence that is delivered contingent on a behaviour affects the future likelihood of performing that behaviour.
D) two stimuli are associated with each other because one stimulus reliably predicts the other stimulus.
D) two stimuli are associated with each other because one stimulus reliably predicts the other stimulus.
- Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a(n) stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired
with a(n) stimulus that would elicit the same response naturally.
Question options:
A) conditioned; neutral
B) unconditioned; conditioned
C) unconditioned; neutral
D) neutral; unconditioned
D) neutral; unconditioned
- Adam was badly stung by a bee once. Now he has an exaggerated fear not only of bees but also of all flying insects. In
part through stimulus , Adam has developed a(n) .
Question options:
A) generalization; phobia
B) association; neurosis
C) association; phobia
D) generalization; neurosis
A) generalization; phobia
- Amir has an exaggerated, irrational fear of needles. This fear is called a . It is associated with increased
brain activity in the .
Question options:
A) phobia; hypothalamus
B) phobia; amygdala
C) neurosis; hypothalamus
D) neurosis; amygdala
B) phobia; amygdala
- Marco shoveled his neighbour’s walk because he knew she was ill. She thanked him effusively and
praised him to the other neighbours, telling them all what a good person Marco was. Consequently, the
next time it snowed, Marco went over to shovel his neighbour’s walk again. In this example, the praise and
compliments Marco received served as a
Question options:
A) negative reinforcer.
B) conditioned stimulus.
C) positive reinforcer.
D) conditioned response.
C) positive reinforcer
- If a capuchin sees another monkey get a more desirable reward for the same task the monkey will react by refusing to carry out
th same task unless an identical reward is offered. This is evidence of
Question options:
A) classical conditioning.
B) vicarious learning.
C) operant conditioning.
D) modeling.
B) vicarious learning
- Floriano is walking back to his apartment late at night alone after going to watch three horror movies. When an alley cat
knocks over some trashcans, he screams in fear and almost jumps out of his skin. Floriano’s reaction to the cat is likely the
result of
Question options:
A) habituation.
B) sensitization.
C) operant conditioning.
D) classical conditioning.
B) sensitazation
- Filip’s dog is getting much too smart. His dog has learned that when Filip grabs the leash, this means they’re going
outside, and he gets very excited. Within a week, his dog realized that before Filip grabs the leash, he puts his shoes on,
and now he gets excited every time Filip puts on his shoes. This is an example of what type of learning?
Question options:
A) higher-order conditioning
B) spontaneous recovery
C) stimulus discrimination
D) extinction
A) higher-order conditioning
- Which of the following can you do to decrease the context effect?
Question options:
A) learn the material in many different locations
B) learn the material by saying it out loud so that it is phonologically encoded
C) learn the material in the location that testing will occur
D) learn the material very well in the same context every day
A) learn the material in many different locations
- Which of the following is an example of negative
punishment? Question options:
A) You do your homework so your parents will give you the $5 they promised.
B) You get grounded for a week for leaving the car windows open in the rain.
C) You take out the garbage so your brother will stop nagging at you.
D) You scold your dog for chewing up a plant.
B) You get grounded for a week for leaving the car windows open in the rain.
- Rochelle is going to the beach for the day and applies a heavy coat of sunscreen to avoid getting a burn. What
type of consequence is this?
Question options:
A) positive reinforcement
B) negative reinforcement
C) positive punishment
D) negative punishment
B) negative reinforcement
