Chapter 7: Learning Flashcards
1
Q
What is us learning to expect and prepare for significant events such as food or pain an example for?
A
Classical conditioning
2
Q
What is us learning to repeat acts that bring rewards and to avoid acts that bring unwanted results an example for?
A
Operant conditioning
3
Q
“We learn new behaviors by observing events and people, and through language, we learn things we have neither experienced nor observed” is an example of what?
A
Cognitive learning
4
Q
What is learning?
A
The process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.
5
Q
On average, behaviors become habitual after how many days?
A
66 days
6
Q
What is associative learning?
A
Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).
7
Q
What is classical conditioning?
A
The learning of associating two stimuli and thus anticipating events
8
Q
What is operant conditioning?
A
Th learning of associating a response (our behavior) and its consequence
9
Q
What is a stimulus?
A
Any event or situation that evokes a response
10
Q
What is respondent behavior?
A
Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
11
Q
What is operant behavior?
A
Behavior that operates on the environment (there is no obvious triggering stimulus), producing a consequence.
12
Q
What is cognitive learning?
A
The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.
13
Q
Why are habits, such as having something sweet with that cup of coffee, so hard to break?
A
Habits form when we repeat behaviors in a given context and, as a result, learn association - often without our awareness. For example, we may have eaten a sweet pastry with a cup of coffee often enough to associate the flavor of the coffee with the treat, so that the cup of coffee alone just doesn’t seem right anymore!
14
Q
Illustrate classical conditioning with Pavlov’s classic experiment?
A
To illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food).
15
Q
What is behaviorism?
A
The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
16
Q
What is a neutral stimulus (NS)?
A
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.
17
Q
What is Pavlov’s famous dog experiment?
A
He tested whether a dog would start salivating when he hears a bell ring after having heard the bell ring and gotten food before. His experiment proved the existence of classical conditioning.
18
Q
What is an unconditioned response (UR)?
A
In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).
19
Q
What is an unconditional stimulus (US)?
A
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR).
20
Q
What is a conditioned response (CR)?
A
In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
21
Q
What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
A
In classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).
22
Q
An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff that causes your eye to blink. After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone. What is the NS? The US? The UR? The CS? The CR?
A
NS = tone before conditioning
US = air puff
UR = blink to air puff
CS = tone after conditioning
CR = blink to tone
23
Q
What is acquisition (in classical conditioning)?
A
The initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.
24
Q
What is acquisition (in operant conditioning)?
A
The strengthening of a reinforced response.
25
What is extinction?
The diminishing of a conditioned response.
26
When does extinction occur in classical conditioning?
When an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)
27
When does extinction occur in operant conditioning?
When a response is no longer reinforced
28
What is spontaneous recovery?
The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
29
If the aroma of a baking cake sets your mouth to watering,
what is the US? The CS? The CR?
The cake (including its taste) is the US. The associated aroma is the CS. Salivation to the aroma is the CR.
30
The first step of classical conditioning, when an NS becomes a CS, is called ______________. When a US no longer follows the CS, and the CR becomes weakened, this is called _______________.
Acquisition; extinction
31
What is generalization (stimulus generalization)?
The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
32
When does stimulus generalization occur in operant conditioning?
In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations
33
What is discrimination in classical conditioning?
In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
34
What is discrimination in operant conditioning?
In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced
35
In horror movies, sexually arousing images of women are sometimes paired with violence against women. Based on classical conditioning principles, what might be an effect of this pairing?
If viewing an attractive nude or seminude woman (a US) elicits sexual arousal (a UR), then pairing the US with a new NS (violence) could turn violence into a CS that also becomes sexually arousing (a CR).
36
Knowing Pavlov's principles, why do counselors advise their clients to steer clear of people and settings that may trigger drug cravings?
Because former drug users often feel a craving when they are again in the drug-using context—with people or in places they associate with previous highs.
37
Who was "Little Albert" and what was the famous experiment associated to him?
Watson worked with then 11-month-old "Little Albert" and conditioned him to fear white rats. He did this by presenting a white rat and every time Albert was about to touch the rat, Watson produced a loud noise (humans are generally fearful of loud noises, not so of white rats).
38
In Watson and Rayner’s experiments, “Little Albert” learned to fear a white rat after repeatedly experiencing a loud noise as the rat was presented. In these experiments, what was the US? The UR? The NS? The CS? The CR?
US = loud noise
UR = fear of loud noise
NS = rat before pairing to noise
CS = rat after pairing to noise
CR = fear of rat
39
Learning is defined as “the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring _____________ or _______________.”
information; behaviors
40
Two forms of associative learning are classical conditioning, in which the organism associates _______________, and operant conditioning, in which the organism associates _______________.
two or more stimuli; a response and a consequence
41
In Pavlov’s experiments, the tone started as a neutral stimulus, and then became a(n) ________________ stimulus.
conditioned
42
Dogs have been taught to salivate to a circle but not to a square. This process is an example of ________________.
discrimination
43
After Watson and Rayner classically conditioned Little Albert to fear a white rat, the child later showed fear in response to a rabbit, a dog, and a furry coat. This illustrates what?
Generalization
44
“Sex sells!”is a common saying in advertising.Using classical conditioning terms, explain how sexual images in advertisements can condition your response to a product.
A sexual image is a US that triggers a UR of interest or arousal. Before the ad pairs a product with a sexual image, the product is an NS. Over time the product can become a CS that triggers the CR of interest or arousal.
45
What is operant conditioning?
A type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.
46
With classical conditioning, we learn associations between events we ____________ (do/do not) control. With operant conditioning, we learn associations between our behavior and _____________ (resulting/random) events.
do not; resulting
47
What is Thorndike's law of effect?
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
48
An operant chamber is also known as what?
Skinner box
49
What is an operant chamber (Skinner box)?
In operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can press to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
50
What is reinforcement?
In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
51
What is shaping (in operant conditioning)?
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
52
What is positive reinforcement?
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
53
What is negative reinforcement?
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive (annoying, bad) stimuli (thus providing relief). A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
54
"Pet a dog that comes when you call it; pay someone for work done". Those are examples of what kind of reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement
55
"Take painkillers to end pain; fasten seatbelt to end loud beeping". Those are examples of what kind of reinforcement?
Negative reinforcement
56
What is a primary reinforcer?
An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
57
What is a conditioned reinforcer?
A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
58
A conditioned reinforcer is also known as what?
Secondary reinforcer
59
What is a reinforcement schedule?
A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
60
What is a continuous reinforcement schedule?
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
61
What is a partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule?
Reinforcing a response only part of the time
62
What does a partial reinforcement schedule result in (compared to continuous reinforcement)?
It results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
63
What is a fixed-ratio reinforcement schedule?
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
64
What is a variable-ratio reinforcement schedule?
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
65
What is a fixed-interval reinforcement schedule?
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
66
What is a variable-interval reinforcement schedule?
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
67
In general, response rates are higher when reinforcement is linked to __________________ rather than to _________________. But responding is more consistent when reinforcement is _________________ than when it is __________________.
the number of responses (a ratio schedule); time (an interval schedule); unpredictable (a variable schedule); predictable (a fixed schedule)
68
People who send spam email are reinforced by which schedule? Home bakers checking the oven to see if the cookies are done are reinforced on which schedule? Donut shops that offer a free donut after every 10 donuts purchased are using which reinforcement schedule?
Spammers are reinforced on a variable-ratio schedule (after sending a varying number of emails). Cookie checkers are reinforced on a fixed-interval schedule. Donut rewards programs use a fixed-ratio schedule.
69
What is punishment in operant conditioning?
An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
70
What is positive punishment?
Administering an aversive (bad) stimulus
71
What is negative punishment?
Withdrawing a rewarding stimulus
72
"Spray water on a barking dog; give a traffic ticket for speeding". Those are examples of what kind of punishment?
Positive punishment
73
"Take away a misbehaving teen’s driving privileges; revoke a rude person’s chat room access". Those are examples of what kind of punishment?
Negative punishment
74
Ethan constantly misbehaves at preschool even though his teacher scolds him repeatedly. Why does Ethan’s misbehavior continue, and what can his teacher do to stop it?
If Ethan is seeking attention, the teacher's scolding may be reinforcing rather than punishing. Instead of punishing the teacher could offer reinforcement every time he behaves well and shape his behavior slowly towards the desired behavior.
75
Conditioning is the process of
Question options:
learning associations.
observational learning.
discrimination.
spontaneous recovery.
learning associations.
76
A partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response that occurs after an unpredictable period of time is a ________ schedule.
Question options:
variable-ratio
fixed-ratio
variable-interval
fixed-interval
variable-interval
77
Samantha's cat salivates in response to the taste of food in its mouth. Each morning, Samantha places the cat's food on the back porch. Each time Samantha opens the door the bell rings. Now, Samantha's cat salivates when the bell rings. Which of the following is the neutral stimulus in this example?
Question options:
the door
food
salivation
the bell on the door
the bell on the door
78
Jacqueline has a special ring tone on her phone for her boyfriend and a different special ring tone on her phone for her brother. When her boyfriend calls, Jacqueline gets excited but she doesn't get excited when her brother calls. This best illustrates the value of
Question options:
operant behavior.
discrimination.
extinction.
spontaneous recovery.
discrimination.
79
If bears find insects after they move decaying logs, they more frequently move decaying logs. This most clearly indicates that finding insects is a
Question options:
spontaneous recovery.
classically conditioned habit.
reinforcement.
respondent behavior.
reinforcement
80
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it is called
Question options:
shaping.
associative learning.
operant conditioning.
latent learning.
latent learning.
81
A type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher is called
Question options:
cognitive learning.
higher-order conditioning.
classical conditioning.
operant conditioning.
operant conditioning.
82
Preparedness is defined as
Question options:
a biological predisposition to learn associations that have survival value.
the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
a biological predisposition to learn associations that have survival value.
83
Behaviorism was the view that psychology should scientifically study behavior without reference to
Question options:
conditioning.
discrimination.
cognitive processes.
neutral stimuli.
cognitive processes.
84
Five-year-old Trevor refuses to communicate with anyone. To get him to speak, his teacher initially gives him candy for any utterance, then only for a clearly spoken word, and finally only for a complete sentence. The teacher is using the method of
Question options:
spontaneous recovery.
shaping.
delayed reinforcement.
secondary reinforcement.
shaping.
85
Brenda is spanked after running into the street and so learns not to repeat this behavior. In this case, the spanking is a
Question options:
negative punishment.
negative reinforcer.
positive reinforcer.
positive punishment.
positive punishment.
86
Two-year-old Philip was recently clawed by the neighbor's cat. Philip now fears all small animals. His fear demonstrates the process of
Question options:
spontaneous recovery.
operant conditioning.
generalization.
extinction.
generalization.
87
Animals tend to revert from newly learned habits to their biologically predisposed behaviors. This is an example of
Question options:
preparedness.
instinctive drift.
modeling.
latent learning.
instinctive drift.
88
Jeremy wears his baseball cap backward because he noticed that his older brother does so. This illustrates the importance of
Question options:
prosocial behavior.
modeling.
latent learning.
immediate reinforcement.
modeling.
89
To help Miguel learn how to use the toilet, his mother gives him a sticker each time he goes to the bathroom and sits on the toilet correctly. The sticker is an example of a
Question options:
negative punishment.
positive reinforcer.
positive punishment.
negative reinforcer.
positive reinforcer.
90
Salivating in response to a tone paired with food is a(n) _____________ behavior; pressing a bar to obtain food is a(n) _____________ behavior.
respondent; operant
91
Thorndike’s law of effect was the basis for ___________’s work on operant conditioning and behavior control.
Skinner
92
One way to change behavior is to reward natural behaviors in small steps, as the organism gets closer and closer to a desired behavior. This process is called ____________.
Shaping
93
Your dog is barking so loudly that it’s making your ears ring. You clap your hands, the dog stops barking, your ears stop ringing, and you think to yourself, “I’ll have to do that when he barks again.” The end of the barking was for you a what?
Negative reinforcer
94
How could your psychology instructor use negative reinforcement to encourage your attentive behavior during class?
He could take something away that you dislike. For example, he could offer to shorten the length of an assigned paper or replace standard lecture time with an interesting in-class activity.
95
Reinforcing a desired response only some of the times it occurs is called ________ reinforcement.
partial (intermittent)
96
A restaurant is running a special deal. After you buy four meals at full price, you will get a free appetizer. This is an
example of a __________________ schedule of reinforcement.
fixed-ratio
97
The partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after unpredictable time periods is a ______________ schedule.
variable-interval
98
A medieval proverb notes that “a burnt child dreads the fire.” In operant conditioning, the burning would be an example of a ___________.
Positive punisher
99
What is preparedness?
A biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value.
100
How does taste aversion explain the difficulty of eradicating rat populations by poisoning?
For rats, the easiest way to identify tainted food is to taste it; if sickened after sampling a new food, they thereafter avoid it (= taste aversion).
101
How did Garcia and Koelling’s taste-aversion studies help disprove Gregory Kimble’s early claim that “just about any activity of which the organism is capable can be conditioned . . . to any stimulus that the organism can perceive”?
Garcia and Koelling demonstrated that rats may learn an aversion to tastes, on which their survival depends, but not to sights or sounds.
102
What is instinctive drift?
The tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert back to biologically predisposed patterns.
103
What is a cognitive map?
A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
104
What is latent learning?
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
105
Instinctive drift and latent learning are examples of what important idea?
That the success of operant conditioning is affected not just by environmental cues, but also by biological and cognitive factors
106
What is observational learning?
Learning by observing others
107
What is modeling (in learning)?
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior from others
108
Who was the pioneering researcher of observational learning?
Albert Bandura
109
What are mirror neurons?
Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so.
110
The brain’s mirroring of another’s action (mirror neurons) may enables what?
Imitation and empathy
111
What is prosocial behavior?
Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
112
Jason’s parents and older friends all drive over the speed limit, but they advise him not to. Juan’s parents and friends drive within the speed limit, but they say nothing to deter him from speeding. Will Jason or Juan be more likely to speed?
Jason may be more likely to speed. Observational learning studies suggest that children tend to do as others do and say what they say.
113
During their first 18 years, most children in developed countries spend more time doing what than they spend in school.
Watching TV
114
What is the violence-viewing effect?
Media violence can contribute to aggression. This violence-viewing effect may be prompted by imitation and desensitization. Correlation does not equal causation, but study participants have reacted more cruelly when they have viewed violence (instead of entertaining nonviolence).
115
Garcia and Koelling’s ____________ studies showed that conditioning can occur even when the unconditioned stimulus (US) does not immediately follow the neutral stimulus (NS).
taste-aversion
116
Taste-aversion research has shown that some animals develop aversions to certain tastes but not to sights or sounds. What evolutionary psychology finding does this support?
This finding supports Darwin's principle that natural selection favors traits that aid survival
117
Evidence that cognitive processes play an important role in learning comes in part from studies in which rats running a maze develop a _______________ of the maze.
cognitive map
118
Rats that explored a maze without any reward were later able to run the maze as well as other rats that had received food rewards for running the maze. The rats that had learned without reinforcement demonstrated ____________________.
latent learning
119
Children learn many social behaviors by imitating parents and other models. This type of learning is called _________________.
observational learning
120
According to Bandura, we learn by watching models because we experience ____________ reinforcement or _____________
punishment.
vicarious; vicarious
121
Parents are most effective in getting their children to imitate them if
a. their words and actions are consistent.
b. they have outgoing personalities.
c. one parent works and the other stays home to care for the children.
d. they carefully explain why a behavior is acceptable in adults but not in children.
a
122
Some scientists believe that the brain has _________ neurons that enable empathy and imitation.
mirror
123
Most experts agree that repeated viewing of media violence
a. makes all viewers significantly more aggressive.
b. has little effect on viewers.
c. is a risk factor for viewers’ increased aggression.
d. makes viewers angry and frustrated.
c
