Chapter 7: Learning

Question 1

What is learning?

Answer 1

A relatively permanent change in behaviour (or behavioural potential) due to experience.

Question 2

What is behaviourism?

Answer 2

Approach that emphasized the study of observable behaviour and the rold of the environment as a determinen of behaviour.

Question 3

What is conditioning?

Answer 3

Basic kind of learning that involves associations between environmental stimuli and the organism’s responses.

Question 4

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 4

the process by which a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that already elicits a response, and in turn, requires the capacity to elicit a similar or related response.

Ex. Helps explain a variety of daily behaviours, such as why the beep of a microwave oven might make you salivate.

Also known as Pavlovian Conditioning (Pavlov’s Dogs)

Question 5

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Answer 5

Classical-conditioning term for an initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

Question 6

Conditioned Response (CR)

Answer 6

The classical conditioning term for a response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus, occurring after the conditioned stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

Question 7

Unconditioned Response (UR)

Answer 7

The classical conditioning term for a response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus. Ex. Salvation

Question 8

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Answer 8

The classical conditioning term for a stimulus that already elicits a certain response without additional learning. EX. Food

Question 9

Neutral stimulus

Answer 9

A stimulus that initially produces no significant response other than focusing attention. Ex. Sound of a bell or a dish

Question 10

Pavlov’s Dogs Theory

Answer 10

• Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who found out (by accident) that dogs can formulate responses to neutral stimuli through a process called conditioning.
• He believed this finding generalized to humans and was one of the ways that humans learn.
• Knew that unconditioned stimulus - food (US) triggers the unconditional response - salvation (UR).
• Therefore, to condition dogs, he paired a neutral stimulus (sound of a bell, dish) with food (US), to elicit the unconditioned response (UR) of salivation.
• The result was that the sound of the bell (the neutral stimulus) produced salvation in dogs in the absence of food!

Question 11

What is Pavlov’s Dogs formula

Answer 11

Neutral stimulus + US = UR
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) (2 associated) = Conditioned Response (CR)

Question 12

Extinction

Answer 12

• The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response.
• Occurs when the CS is no longer paired with the US.
• May experience spontaneous recovery of response after extinction.

Question 13

What is actually learned in classical conditioning?

Answer 13

Marketers want you to associate certain feelings towards their brands.
I.e., Range Rover=wealthy, Buy Calvins, you can be like Justin Bieber

• Classical conditioning is most effective when stimulus to be conditioned precedes the unconditioned stimulus (US).
• Conditioned stimulus (CS) becomes a signal for the unconditioned stimulus.
• To become a conditioned stimulus (CS) a neutral stimulus (NS) must reliably signal or predict the unconditioned stimulus (US).
• May learn to fear any stimulus that is paired with something that elicits pain, surprise, or embarrassment.
• Humans come biologically “prepared” to learn certain fears faster than others (evolutionary basis)
  E.g., snakes, spiders, heights

Watson, little Albert, and the case of the white rat.
- Unconditoned Stimulus (US) - loud bang
- Conditioend Simulus (CS) - white rat
- CS along with US leads to a Conditioned Response (CR)
- An association is formed between US and CS (so that US=CS)
- Therefore CS alone leads to a response

Question 14

Conditioning Taste

Answer 14

• Classical conditioning can explain how we learn to like and dislike many foods and odours.
• Researchers have taught animals to dislike foods/odours by pairing them with drugs that cause nausea or other unpleasant symptoms.

Question 15

Operant Conditioning

Answer 15

Consequences of behaviour influence probability of reoccurrence.

This is the theory of behaviour modification where you target behaviours that you want to change (i.e., train students how to behave)
- Created by Skinner
- This theory has had a very significant influence on schools; also significant in treatments for autism. Part of behaviour therapy.

Question 16

Reinforcement

Answer 16

The process by which a stimulus or event strengthens or increases the probability of the response that it follows.

Question 17

Punishment

Answer 17

The process by which a stimulus or event weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it follows.

Question 18

Positive Reinforcement

Answer 18

When a response is followed by the representation or increase in intensity of a reinforcing stimulus; response becomes more likely to occur (e.g., getting rewards for good behaviour)

Question 19

Negative Reinforcement

Answer 19

When a response is followed by the removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; response becomes more likely to occur (e.g., turning down the volume of a very loud radio, cleaning the house to get rid of your parents’ nagging)

Question 20

Positive Punishment

Answer 20

When a response is followed by the presentation or increase in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; response becomes less likely to occur (e.g., escalating ticket fines each time caught speeding).

Question 21

Negative Punishment

Answer 21

When a response is followed by the removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of a pleasant stimulus; response becomes less likely to occur (e.g., being grounded after staying out past curfew).

Question 22

Continuous schedule of reinforcement

Answer 22

A schedule where a particular response is always reinforced

Question 23

Intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement

Answer 23

• A schedule in which a particular response in sometimes but not always reinforced
• Can be fixed or variable, and involve the number of responses (ratio) or interval between responses.

Question 24

Shaping

Answer 24

When behaviours are not likely to occur spontaneously, may use shaping to teach to others (e.g., animals and children).
- An operant conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a desired response are reinforced.

Question 25

Successive approximations

Answer 25

behaviours that are ordered in terms of increasing similarity or closeness to the desired response.

Question 26

Pros of Punishment

Answer 26

Punishment can be effective when applied correctly:

• Punishment most effective when it occurs immediately after the undesirable behaviour. E.g., radar versus photo radar tickets
• The consistency of punishment is more important than the severity of punishment.

Question 27

Cons of Punishment

Answer 27

• People often administer punishment inappropriately.
• The recipient of punishment often responds with anxiety, fear, or rage.
• The effectiveness of punishment is often temporary and depends on the presence of the punisher.
• Most misbehaviour is hard to punish immediately.
• Punishment conveys little information.
• An action intended to punish may instead be reinforcing because it beings attention.

Question 28

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards

Answer 28

Rewards may not work as planned as they can be misused, and may backfire.

Extrinsic reinforcers: reinforcers that are not inherently related to the activity being reinforced (e.g., money, praise, gold stars)

Intrinsic reinforcers: reinforcers that are inherently related to the activity being reinforced (e.g., enjoyment of doing the task satisfaction of accomplishment)

Sometimes people become too reliant on extrinsic reinforcement and stop experiencing pleasure of doing something for its own sake.

Question 29

Social cognitive theories

Answer 29

Theories that emphasize how behaviour is learned and maintained through observation and imitation of others, positive consequences, and cognitive processes such as plans, expectations, and beliefs.