Chapter 7 Flashcards
1
Q
Herbert Spencer
A
- Struck American universities like lightning in the 1860s, dominated for 30 years
- Called “our philosopher” by Darwin
- Prolific writer, arrived in America in 1882 to great fanfare
- Suffered from neurotic and physical illnesses (like Darwin)
- No formal post-secondary education
- Influenced by John Stuart Mill
2
Q
Spencer’s View of Evolution
A
- Coined “survival of the fittest” in 1852
- Saw evolution being applied to animals, human behaviour, and human societies
- Suggested nervous system evolved for survival-based behaviour
- Early follower of Lamarck and Darwin
3
Q
Social Darwinism
A
- System of philosophy that made Spencer famous
- Evolution applies to human character and social institutions
- The fittest survive in a free society; minimal government interference
- Governmental attempts to regulate business and industry and welfare (even subsidies for education, housing, and the poor) were opposed
4
Q
Social Darwinism is compatible…
A
- … with American values and individualistic spirit:
- Free enterprise
- Self-sufficiency
- Independence from government regulation
- Pioneer spirit, land for the taking…
5
Q
Synthetic Philosophy
A
- Spencer’s system explaining knowledge via evolutionary principles
- Synthetic = synthesizing/combining (not fake or artificial)
- 10 books, including The Principles of Psychology
- Discussed notion that the mind exists in its present form because of past and continuing efforts to adapt to various environments
- Emphasized adaptive nature of nervous and mental processes
- Wrote that an increasing complexity of experiences, and hence of behaviour, is part of the normal evolutionary process
6
Q
Evolving Machines
A
- Samuel Butler
- Essay “Darwin among the Machines”
- Proposed that mechanical evolution is the struggle to create new machines and gain some competitive advantage
- Machines evolve similarly to natural selection in humans (natural selection and struggle for existence)
7
Q
Herman Hollerith & Punched Cards
A
- Invented machine to process U.S. Census faster (1890)
- New way of processing information
- Started the company that would later become IBM
8
Q
William James
A
- Called “most brilliant psychologist” by Watson, “greatest” by Dewey
- Precursor to Functional Psychology (presented own theories within the framework)
- Did not train students
- Criticized for interest in spiritualism
- Turning point: read an essay by Charles- Bernard Renouvier on free will (began to believe in his own ability to get better)
- Established first U.S. psychology lab (1875, for teaching, not research)
9
Q
The Principles of Psychology (1890)
+ Key terms
A
- Took 12 years to write, James was dissatisfied (thought it was too long)
- Key terms:
1. Phenomena – psychology studies immediate experience
2. Conditions – importance of brain in mental life
10
Q
Reactions to The Principles
A
- Wundt: “Beautiful, but not psychology”
- Titchener and Leipzig-trained psychologists were critical
- Most other psychologists reacted favourably
- Became dominant psychology text for decades
11
Q
James After the Principles
A
- Turned his attention toward philosophy
- Recruited Hugo Münsterberg to take over his lab at Harvard
- However, Münsterberg instead focused on applied psychology instead of the lab
- James became America’s leading philosopher
12
Q
Importance of The Principles
+ 3 Reasons for James’ influence:
A
- Lays the groundwork for Functionalism
- Psychology should focus on people and the environment
- Evolution can then be incorporated
- 3 Reasons for James’ influence:
1. Clear and magnetic writing style
2. Directly opposed Wundt
3. An alternative viewpoint of psychology
13
Q
James’ Consciousness
A
- Opposed Wundt: conscious experience is not a collection of elements
- Simple sensations are just a complex conclusion
14
Q
Stream of Consciousness
A
- Flows continuously
- Attempts to reduce to elements will distort it
- Mind is selective, we can only pay attention to fragments of experiences at a time
- Mind selects the most relevant information (doing so allows us to make logical conclusions)
- Function is the purpose of consciousness
15
Q
James’ + Introspection
A
- James believed that Introspection was still necessary
1. Acknowledged it had limitations
2. Most useful for psychophysics, space perception, and memory - ‘Comparative method’ as a compliment
- Compare functioning between groups, ages, and even animals
16
Q
Pragmatism
A
- Heart of functionalism
- Truth is determined by practical consequences
- Pragmatism (1907):
1. Two types of personalities
2. Tender-minded: rational, optimistic, religious, but believe in free will
3. Tough-minded: fact focused, pessimistic, non- religious, less inclined toward free will
17
Q
Theory of Emotions
A
- Contradicted current thinking about the nature of emotional states (e.g. Angry dog, we are afraid, and we run)
- The arousal of the physical response precedes the appearance of the emotion
- Later lead to the “James-Lange theory of emotions” (e.g. Angry dog, we run, then we are afraid)
18
Q
Three-Part Self
A
- Material Self – possessions & appearance
- Clothing important for self-expression (would wear polka-dot tie and checkered pants) - Social Self – recognition from others
- Spiritual Self – inner thoughts and feelings
19
Q
Habits
A
- All creatures are a ‘bundle of habits’
- Formed and strengthened when an activity is repeated
- Influence of physiological influences
- Repetitive or habitual actions involve the nervous system
- Serve to increase the plasticity of neural matter
20
Q
William James Contributions to psychology
A
- Incorporated evolution into psychology
- A departure from structuralism and Wundt
- A functional psychology that led to other schools of psychology (e.g., clinical)
- Encourage a broad range of topics/ideas
- Influenced numerous students at Harvard (Angell, Hall, Calkins, Thorndike)
- A textbook to rally behind
21
Q
Mary Whiton Calkins
A
- James helped Calkins, also worked under Münsterberg
- Denied PhD by Harvard despite completing requirements
- Established a psych lab
- First female APA president (1905)
22
Q
Paired-Associate Technique
A
- While working with Münsterberg, Calkins developed
- Designed to study frequency and vividness of memories in the lab
1. Colours paired with numbers
2. Several pairings shown
3. Colours shown alone, participants asked for the paired numbers - Still commonly used in memory research
23
Q
Variability Hypothesis
A
- Theory that men had greater intellectual range and variation than women
- Based on Darwinian ideas of male variability
- Calkins and others (Woolley, Hollingworth) refuted it
- Other theory suggested: for women, education beyond basic schooling would do ‘emotional damage’
24
Q
Helen Woolley
A
- Dewey taught her and said she was brilliant
- 1924, became director of the Institute of Child Welfare Research at Columbia University
25
Helen Wooley's Research
- First experimental test of male vs. female intelligence
- Results:
o No sex differences in emotional functioning and non-significant differences in intellectual abilities
o Women slightly superior in memory and sensory perception
o Attributed differences to social and environmental factors (i.e., childrearing)
26
Leta Hollingworth
- Coined term gifted children
- Assisted husband on caffeine research on Coke
- Contributed to clinical, educational, and school psychology (esp. educational and emotional needs of gifted children)
- Took psych courses from Thorndike
- Active role in the women’s suffrage movement (right to vote)
27
Leta Hollingworth’s Research on the Variability Hypothesis
- Conducted extensive empirical research on variability hypothesis
- Her data refuted the variability hypothesis and other notions of female inferiority
o Example: she found the menstrual cycle was not related to performance deficits
- Challenged the concept of an innate instinct for motherhood
- Also challenged the belief that women were not as intelligent as men
28
G. Stanley Hall
- Studied under Wundt and was friends with Fechner (did not follow Wundt's methods)
- Taught John Dewey and James Cattell
- First American PhD in psychology
- First U.S. psychology lab and journal (American Journal of Psychology)
- First APA president, later served a second term
- First applied psychologists
- Graduated 1st African American PhD in psyc at Clark (Cecil Sumner)
29
Clark University & Freud’s Visit (1909)
- Hall became interested in Freud's work
- Hosted Freud, Jung, and others at Clark’s 20th anniversary
- Freud gave 5 lectures, controversial but influential
30
Hall's Thoughts on Evolution
- Was fully engaged in evolutionary explanations
- Argued that evolution, not physics, should be the foundation for all of science
- Once introduced as the ‘Darwin of the mind’
- Became fascinated with human and animal development
- His goal was to apply psychology to the functioning of children
31
Recapitulation Theory
- G. S. Hall
- Extensive use of questionnaires (he learned this in Germany)
- Children in their personal development repeat the life history of the human race
- Evolving from infancy to childhood to rational human being
- The Adolescence book became controversial because of focus on sex
o Thorndike: “I really think it is a bad thing morally and intellectually to harp so much on the sexual string”
32
Opposition to Co-education
- G. S. Hall
- Argued against co-education of girls and boys
- Suggested that the genders have different trajectories and need to be separated
- Inhibition of sexual desire leads to a better Society
o “Powerful feelings, checked and redirected, erotic energy converted to mental energy”
33
Founding of Functionalism
## Footnote
Emphasis on...
- Titchener gave it an identity and status
- John Dewey and James Angell contributed as well
- Functionalism was not started intentionally
- Began as a protest against the restrictions and limitations of Wundt’s psychology and Titchener’s structuralism
- No single form to functionalism
- Emphasis on:
o Mental functions: look at real-world problems
o How people function in, and adapt to, different environments
34
Chicago School
- John Dewey & James Angell
- Functionalism emphasized adaptation and application
35
John Dewey
- Published first American textbook in new psychology (titled Psychology)
- Was very progressive in his child rearing techniques
- Strongly influenced by evolutionary theory: consciousness and behaviour support the life of the organism; consciousness brings about the appropriate behaviour that enables the organism to survive
36
Reflex Arc
- Practical orientation: applying psychology to educational/philosophical problems
- Connection between sensory stimuli and motor responses
- Reflex Arc
o Dewey argued that neither behavior nor conscious experience could be reduced to elements (in contrast to Wundt)
- Example: Flame & Child:
o Approach flame but then pull hand back
o Response has altered the child’s perception
o Stimulus (flame) and response (pain) are a unit
37
James Rowland Angell
- Studied with Dewey
- Molded functionalist movement into working school of thought
- Was influenced by James’s The Principles of Psychology
- Attended lectures by Ebbinghaus and Helmholtz
- 15th president of the APA
38
Province of Functional Psychology
## Footnote
+ 3 major themes of functionalist movement
- Angell wrote the textbook Psychology, which embodied the functionalist approach
o Very successful, with four editions in four years
- Goal of psychology: study how the mind assists the organism in adjusting to its environment
- Three major themes of functionalist movement:
o Mental operations (not elements)
o Fundamental utilities of consciousness
o Psychophysical relations (mind-body relations)
39
Functionalism at Columbia
- Another form of functionalism developed at Columbia University
- Other contributors:
o James McKeen Cattell: work on mental tests embodied the American functionalist spirit
o E.L. Thorndike: research on problems of animal learning reinforced the functionalist trend toward greater objectivity
40
Robert Woodworth
- After reading James’s Principles, attended Harvard to study in the physiological lab
- Moved to Columbia to complete his PhD under Cattell
- Spent most of his career at Columbia
41
Dynamic Psychology
- Woodworth’s system
- Concerned with the influence of causal factors and motivations on feelings and behaviour
- Emphasized physiological events underlying behaviour more than the Chicago School (Cause-and-effect relationships)
- Introduced: S-O-R (stimulus-organism-response)
42
Criticisms of Functionalism
- Came mostly from structuralism (Titchener):
o Any approach other than introspection was not considered psychology
o Criticisms of the functional psychologists’ interest in practical concerns
- Ongoing dispute between psychology as a pure or as an applied science
43
Consequences of the shift to Functionalism
- Research on animal behavior
- Studies of infants, children, and people with mental disabilities
- Data obtained from other methods (i.e., mental tests, questionnaires, and objective descriptions of behavior)
- By 1930, the functional victory was complete
