Chapter 7 Flashcards
Lesions
When a sign involves the specific disturbance of bodily tissue, such as a gastric ulcer, or the abnormal functioning of a bodily system, such as high blood pressure,
Behaviour
is a discrete and potentially observable act, such as eating, being physically active, exercising, smoking cigarettes, and so forth
Psychological Process
is not observable directly, but may be inferred reasonably on the basis of other phenomena that are. For example, we cannot see another’s depression, but we can see evidence—in facial expression, in the way the individual speaks, in changes in sleeping, and even in responses to a questionnaire—that allows us to infer with some confidence that depression is present.
Endocrine System
-Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) axis
Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) Axis)
-When activated, secretes adrenocroticotropic hormone (ACTH) into the circulation
-Targets for ACTH are cells in the adrenal cortex
-Secrete a stress hormone, the glucorticoid cortisol into the circulation
Automatic Nervous system
1) Sympathetic branch
-Aroused= produces changes that prepare the body for vigorous action (increased blood pressure, heart rate, and perspiration, and decreased digestove)
=Fight or flight, and prepares the body for action in response to stress or danger
2)Parasympathetic
=Rest and digest response promoting relaxation and recovery
The Immune System
The immune system comprises a network of cells and organs that defends the body against external, disease-causing forces (e.g., bacteria, viruses, fungi) or internal pathogens (e.g., cancerous cells) known as antigens. The immune system performs this function through the complex actions of a variety of white blood cells
Three categories of immune response
Nonspecific, cellular, and humoral
1) Nonspecific immuse responses
One of the three general categories of immune response, in which circulating white cells called granulocytes and monocytes identify invading antigens and destroy them by phagocytosis: engulfing and digesting them
2)Cellular Immunity
One of the three general categories of immune response, based on the action of a class of blood cells called T-lymphocytes. The “T” designation refers to the locus of their production, the thymus gland. Cellular immunity results from a cascade of actions of various types of T-lymphocytes.
Humoral Immunity
One of the three general categories of immune response, in which invading antigens are presented by macrophages to B-lymphocytes. (“B” stands for bursa, an organ in which such cells are produced in birds. B-lymphocytes derive from the liver and bone marrow in humans.) This causes the B-cells to reproduce—a process reinforced by the lymphokine secretion from the helper T-cells. Some of the activated B-cells remain as memory B-cells. Others go on to be plasma cells, secreting antibodies called immunoglobulins that neutralize antigens in a number of different ways, such as clumping, presenting the antigen to phagocytic cells, or rupturing the antigen.
Phases of stress
1) Alarm= body mobilizes its defence
2) resistance phase= during which it actively copes with the challenge through immune and neuroendocrine changes. In the short term, these adaptive responses enhance the body’s ability to ward off threats.
3) Exhaustion phase: Energy is depleted and resistance can no longer be maintained. At this point, the characteristic tissue changes described above occur and the organism may succumb to a disease of adaptation, such as an ulcer.
4) General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)= A stereotyped pattern of bodily changes that occur in response to diverse challenges to the organism, first described by Hans Selye. The syndrome comprises three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. The GAS was the first formal description and definition of stress.
Transactional Model of Stress
A model of stress that conceives of stress as a property neither of stimulus nor of response, but rather as an ongoing series of transactions between an individual and their environment. Central to this formulation is the idea that people constantly evaluate what is happening to them and its implications for themselves.
Appraisals
In the transactional model of stress, evaluations that people constantly make about what is happening to them and its implications for themselves.
Primary Appraisal
In the transactional model of stress, an appraisal, which may occur quite unconsciously, that takes place when a person is faced with an event that may have adaptational significance. It is as if the individual asks: “Is this a threat to me?” The primary appraisal sets the stage for further events that may or may not lead to stress.
Secondary Appraisals
In the transactional model of stress, a set of appraisals that occur after a primary appraisal if the individual concludes there is an element of threat, equivalent to the question: “Is there anything I can do about this?”
Problem Focused Coping
The individual may have a number of options available, such as seeking the advice of a physician or trying to discern what will be on the final examination. Such approaches have been termed problem-focused coping because they attempt to identify and rectify the threat.
Emotion Focused Coping
The individual may focus on mollifying the bad feelings associated with the perception of threat. Such emotion-focused coping might involve engaging in diverting thoughts or activities or taking drugs to induce a different-feeling state.
Alexithymia
is a personality characteristic originally introduced to describe a cognitive-affective pattern of behaviour frequently observed in patients with so-called psychosomatic disorders. The salient features of alexithymia include (1) difficulty identifying and describing subjective feelings; (2) difficulty distinguishing between feelings and bodily sensations of emotional arousal; (3) constricted imaginal capacities; and (4) externally oriented cognitive style
Ulcer
he events leading to an ulcer are thought to involve an interaction between the stomach’s own digestive juices and its natural defence mechanisms. The digestive juices, one of which is hydrochloric acid, are produced and secreted in the stomach in order to digest food. They are highly corrosive to living tissue, including the stomach itself, which is normally protected by a mucosal lining. Ulcers occur when the digestive fluids penetrate the lining, thus leaving the stomach, or duodenal wall, defenceless against their corrosive action.
ischemic Heart disease
A condition in which blood supply to the heart becomes compromised, leading to a myocardial infarction. One of the leading causes of death from diseases of the cardiovascular system in Western societies.
Myocardial Infarction
Heart Attack
Stroke
in which the blood supply to the brain is interrupted, leading to death of neural tissue. The disease processes underlying both end points are sufficiently similar that they are considered two sides of the same coin.
Potential Years of Life Lost (PYLL)
a measure calculated by subtracting age of death from an individual’s life expectancy—than any other cause except cancer and accidents. Cardiovascular disease also causes significant suffering and disability among survivors.
Vasculature
The system of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins responsible for circulation of the blood to all parts of the body and its return to the heart.
Systolic Blood pressure/Diastolic Blood Pressure
A measure of the pressure of the blood flowing through the vasculature. It is obtained by finding the number of millimetres of mercury displaced by a sphygmomanometer (blood pressure cuff).
Cardiac Output
The amount of blood pumped by the heart. One of the two major variables that determine blood pressure. Cardiac output is itself determined by two other variables: the rate at which the heart beats (commonly measured in beats per minute) and the amount of blood ejected from the heart (stroke volume).
Total Peripheral Resistance
The diameter of the blood vessels; one of the variables affecting blood pressure.
Arrhythmias
Disturbances in the normal pumping rhythm of the heart. Can result in myocardial infarction.
Atherisckerisis
A buildup of deposits, known as plaques, on the walls of the blood vessels. Atherosclerosis can narrow the openings of arteries enough to compromise the blood supply to the heart or the brain, leading to myocardial infarction or stroke.
Atherogensis
he development of atherosclerosis. Can occur as early as 2 years of age.
Modifiable risk factors
High blood cholesterol and cigarette smoking are considered major
Protective Factors
Physical activity and exercise are
Hypertension
A characteristically high level of resting blood pressure (defined as a systolic blood pressure/diastolic blood pressure reading of more than 140/80 mmHg under precisely defined conditions). Can result from any of variety of causes, but in about 90% of cases it is “essential,” meaning a simple cause cannot be identified. Hypertension is a risk factor for death due to cardiovascular disease.
Stress Reactivity Paradigm
A viewpoint that sees the reaction to stress as important to an understanding of cardiovascular disease.
Cardiocascular Reactivity
The degree of change in a cardiovascular function that occurs in response to psychologically significant events.
Cardiovascular Recovery
Sustained cardiovascular activation above baseline levels during the post-stress recovery period. Associated with an increase in risk for hypertension and cardiovascular disease.
Type A
A syndrome of behaviours that includes hyperalertness and arousability, a chronic sense of time-urgency, competitiveness, hostility, and job-involvement.
psychophysiological reactivity model
One model of how hostility might lead to health risk, which suggests that hostile people are at higher risk for various diseases because they experience exaggerated autonomic and neuroendocrine responses during stress.
psychosocial vulnerability model
One model of how hostility might lead to health risk, which suggests that hostile people experience a more demanding interpersonal life than others.
Transactional Model
a hybrid of the first two models, posits that the behaviour of hostile individuals constructs, by its natural consequences, a social world that is antagonistic and unsupportive. Consequent interpersonal stress and lack of social support increase the vulnerability of these people.
The Health Behaviour Model
suggests that hostile people may be more likely to engage in unhealthy behaviours (e.g., smoking, drug use, high-fat diets) and less likely to engage in healthy practices, such as exercise.
Constitutional Vulnerability
A final theory is that the link between hostility and poor health outcomes is the result of a third variable
