Chapter 6: Theories of Cognitive Development

Question 1

According to Piaget’s theory, what makes one stage more advanced than another?

Answer 1

It is the different way of understanding the world that makes one more advanced (not knowing more)

A qualitative shift occurs that is linked to age

Question 2

What does it mean to say Piaget is a cognitive constructivist?

Answer 2

He believes children construct their own cognitive words; information is not just poured into their minds from the environment

They are scientific problem solvers

Question 3

Explain what a schema is

Answer 3

A schema is a concept that exists in an individuals mind that helps organize and interpret information; a structure held in the mind to direct and control behaviour.

Ex. A schema for dogs - dogs walk on 4 legs, are hairy, has a tail, lives in a house, and likes to be pet

Question 4

Name and contrast the 3 processes that progress an individual from one stage to another according to Piaget

Answer 4

Assimilation - incorporating new information into existing knowledge/schemas

Accommodation - adjust knowledge/schemas to new information

Equilibration - the attempt to keep cognitive structures in balance and integrate knowledge into a coherent whole. Shifts occur because of cognitive conflict that is resolves though assimilation and accommodation

Question 5

What are the three phases that drive equilibrium?

Answer 5

Equilibrium

Shortcomings in system that lead to disequilibrium

More sophisticated mode of thought is reached (a more stable equilibrium)

Question 6

What are the 4 major stages in Piaget’s theory?

Answer 6

Sensorimotor (birth to 2 yrs)

Preoperational (2-6 or 7)

Concerete operational (6-11 or 12)

Formal operational (11 - 12+)

Question 7

What does it mean to say the stages are invariant?

Answer 7

The stages never change and are universal.

They can also not be skipped as later development builds on earlier ones

Question 8

Describe the sensorimotor stage

Answer 8

Infant moves from simple reflexes to symbol thought.

Major accomplishment is object permanence

Question 9

What age is object permanence acquired?

Answer 9

Piaget argued it was acquired no earlier than 8 months, however, Baillargeon demonstrated infant 3-4 months had object permanence

Piaget’s task required too much motor abilities therefore children under 8 months were unable to be successful

Question 10

Describe the preoperational stage

Answer 10

This stage is marked by children’s ability to use symbols to represent objects and events undergoing significant advancement. Children often focus on one aspect of a problem and ignore the other (centration)

Major accomplishments:

• being able to understand a scale model
• moving from being focused on their own perspective (egocentric) to becoming more interactive

Question 11

Describe the idea of a collective monologue

Answer 11

Children speak to each other similar to a conversation with turn taking but speak in unrelated ways. They’re not having a conversation with each other

Question 12

What is spatial perspective taking?

Answer 12

When a child is able to understand a spatial perspective of another person

Ex. three-mountain task or hiding doll task

Question 13

Children are overly influenced by the appearance of things in the ______ stage

Answer 13

preoperational

Question 14

Children gain an understanding for conservation in the _____ stage

Answer 14

concrete operational

Question 15

What can increase a childs performance in a conservation task?

Answer 15

The transformation is accidental

The children are only asked the question once

The transformation is hidden

Question 16

Describe the concrete operational stage

Answer 16

Thinking is based on mental operations: they use strategies and rules to make thinking more systematic and powerful. Children focus on the real/concrete, not the abstract

Major accomplishments:
- children understand operations can be revered (conservation, reversing addition)

Question 17

Describe the formal operational stage

Answer 17

Capable of logical and scientific thinking, applying mental operations to abstract entities (freedom, time, democracy), and engaging in hypothetical thinking.

They begin to think about the form of an argument rather than just the content

Question 18

What is hypothethical-dedutive reasoning?

Answer 18

Formal operational thinkers systematically test possible solutions to a problem and arrive at an answer that can be defended and explained involves formation/evaluation of hypotheses

Question 19

Name some strengths and weaknesses of Piaget’s theory

Answer 19

Strengths:

• focused on cognitive development
• seeking children as active participants in knowledge
• asked great question
• has educational applications

Weakness:

• underestimation/overestimation in certain stages
• mechanisms are vague
• individual differences
• universality
• sociocultural environment
• accuracy of the stage theory

Question 20

Contrast concrete thinking with formal operational thinking on the flask/solution problem

Answer 20

The flask problem with when children are given a series of clear liquid beakers (A-D) and shown a target beaker with pink liquid. They are told that some combination of the beakers will produce the target colour.

Concrete thinkers will begin pouring beakers together sort of randomly and not systematically

Formal thinkers will test more systematically (A with B, B with C, etc.)

Question 21

What are Vygotsky’s two major claims?

Answer 21

1. Development occurs in social interaction - Children are equipped with elementary mental functions that transform into higher mental functions through social interaction (intermental -> intramental)
2. Psychological functioning is mediated by cultural tools (language, technological orientation) - internalized language (inner speech) allows for thinking and cognitive growth, the particular language one speaks plays an important role in thought

Question 22

Contrast Piaget and Vygotsky’s theories

Answer 22

1. Role of cognitive universals - Piaget claims there are cognitive universals whereas Vygotsky claims that development is inseparable from its cultural context
2. Basic unit of analysis - Piaget claims the basic unit is the child, whereas Vygotsky claims that the childs culture must also be considered
3. Cognitive constructivism vs. social constructivism - Piaget is a cognitive constructivist, whereas vygotsky is a social constructivism (children build their knowledge through a social interactive environment)

Question 23

Contrast the terms intermental and intramental

Answer 23

Intermental is between two minds (i.e. narrative memory)

Intramental is within an individuals mind (i.e. private speech)

Question 24

What is ZPD?

Answer 24

The zone of proximal development is the difference between what a child can do alone and what they can do with assistance

Question 25

What is scaffolding? Provide an example

Answer 25

Changing the level of support over the course of a teaching session - reducing assistance as an individual becomes more skilled

Ex. Riding a bike, doing up a zipper, completing addition

Question 26

What are some educational implications for Vygotsky’s theory?

Answer 26

Individuals learn through social interactions - this is why group work, reading buddies, bus buddies, etc all facilitate learning

Children have a ZPD and assessing this is more beneficial that just a standardized test

Question 27

Describe some strengths and limitations of Vygotsky’s theory

Answer 27

Strengths: identifies the importance of cultural differences on throughs, doesn’t claim universals and accounts for individual differences

Weaknesses: mechanisms are vague and difficult to assess

Question 28

What is the theory of information processing?

Answer 28

Information processing is a theory for cognition overall that uses the metaphor mind as a computer

The claim is that people and computers are both symbol processors and there is a distinction between (mental) hardware and (mental) software

Question 29

Explain how memory works

Answer 29

sensory input -> sensory memory (large capacity, very brief) -> working memory (rehearsal important) -> long term memory

Question 30

What are the two types of sensory memory?

Answer 30

Echoic (auditory) and iconic (visual

Question 31

What are the types of long term memory

Answer 31

Procedural (how to do things, difficult to verbalize)

Declarative

• Semantic (factual information)
• Episodic (information that comes from personal experience)

Question 32

What is the purpose of the central executive?

Answer 32

It oversees and coordinates all the activity in processing information

Question 33

According to information processing what are 5 things that develop?

Answer 33

1. increased working memory capacity
2. Better use of strategies (chunking, rehearsal)
3. Increased speed of processing
4. Increased automaticity (effortful process becomes automatic after sufficient practice)
5. More effective inhibitory processes and executive functioning (IC, cognitive flexibility, WM)

Question 34

What are the two types of working memory?

Answer 34

Phonological - holding language or sound based information

Visual-spatial - holding visual-spatial information

Question 35

What are the 3 major EF measured with children

Answer 35

1. cognitive flexibility - ability to consider things from multiple perspectives
2. Inhibitory control (Delay & conflict) - ability to withhold your automatic/typical response
3. Working memory

Question 36

In what types of situations is cognitive flexibility useful?

Answer 36

Anytime you use something for its non-intended purpose

Question 37

Contrast the two types of IC

Answer 37

IC-Delay - delay response until it is appropriate (marshmallow task)

IC-Conflict - replace typical response with a contrary response (stroop task or A-not-B)

Question 38

In what kinds of situations would IC be useful?

Answer 38

self-control is very important and is used in investing, working hard to get a reward (school), dieting, etc.

Question 39

Compare the executive functioning of a 3 and 5 year old

Answer 39

3 year olds typically fail cognitive flexibility tasks, have more difficulty with inhibitory control and have a more limited working memory capacity.

Question 40

What is Case’s Neo-Piagetian approach?

Answer 40

It is a theory that integrates Piagetian theory and information processing

Question 41

Piaget’s theory is build around the metaphor of children as ______

Answer 41

scientists

Question 42

In Piaget’s theory, _______ is illustrated by a breastfed baby who changes the way that she sucks to get milk from a bottle

Answer 42

accommodation

Question 43

The accomplishments of the sensorimotor stage include adapting to and exploring the environment, understanding objects, and _____

Answer 43

using symbols

Question 44

A defining feature of children in the _____ stage of development is that they are often egocentric

Answer 44

preoperational

Question 45

During the ______ stage, thinking is rule-oriented and logical but limited to tangible and real

Answer 45

Concrete operational

Question 46

Piaget underestimated the ability of ______ but overestimated the ability of adolescents

Answer 46

infants

Question 47

The _____ refers to the difference between what children can accomplish alone and what they can do with assistance

Answer 47

Zone of proximal development

Question 48

According to Vygotsky, young children often rely on _______ to help them regulate their own behaviour

Answer 48

private speech

Question 49

In information-processing theories, the ____ is like a computer’s operating system in coordinating the flow of information through the system

Answer 49

central executive

Question 50

According to the information-processing account cognitive development reflects several age-related changes, including better strategies, increased WM capacity, more automatic processing, and _____

Answer 50

faster speed of processing

Question 51

______ propose that specialized processing systems evolved to simplify learning of certain kinds of knowledge, such as language

Answer 51

Core-knowledge theories

Question 52

Research on infants’ understanding of objects suggests that babies have a ____ understanding than Piaget suggested

Answer 52

greater