Chapter 6: self and others

Question 1

What is crucial for children’s development?

Answer 1

Awareness of the self (i.e., differentiation from other people)

Question 2

Define the individual self

Answer 2

Aspects of the self that make a person unique and separate from others

Question 3

Define the relational self

Answer 3

aspects of the self that involve connections to other people and develop out of interactions with others

Question 4

Define the collective self

Answer 4

A person’s concept of self within a group, such as a group based on race or gender

Question 5

What is the red spot on the nose test and what does it assess?

Answer 5

Babies as young as 18 weeks of age will look at their reflection in a mirror but do not realize that they are looking at themselves. The
“Red spot on nose” test is an assessment of self-recognition. Recognize own image in mirror by age 2 – i.e., will touch the red spot on themselves to see what is on it

Question 6

What are Harter’s 6 stages in the development of self descriptions?

Answer 6

3-4 years: observable physical features, preferences, possessions, social characteristics

5-7 years: competencies

8-10: more complex descriptions of private selves - focus on abilities, interpersonal attributes, feelings, roles, values, preferences and cultural community

Early adolescence: interpersonal attributes (social relationships), social skills, competencies, personality, emotions;
recognize different selves in different contexts

Mid adolescence: introspective and preoccupied with what others think of them;
begin to question self descriptions, especially when there are contradictions

Late adolescence: emphasize personal beliefs, values, and moral standards;
think about future and possible selves

Question 7

What is self esteem?

Answer 7

The evaluative component of self that taps how positively or negatively people view themselves in relation to others

Question 8

What do individuals with high self esteem experience?

Answer 8

Children who have high self-esteem view themselves as competent, capable, and are pleased with who they are. Individuals with high self-esteem are happier than those with low self-esteem . Decreased anxiety and depression. High self-esteem in childhood is linked to a variety of positive adjustment outcomes including school success, good relationships with parents and peers, and less anxiety and depression
But, direction of effects is unclear – as good performance can increase self-esteem

Question 9

What is the dark side of self esteem?

Answer 9

• High self-esteem may foster experimentation, which may increase early sexual activity and drinking.
• High self-esteem can also be related to prejudice and antisocial behavior

Question 10

What are the 5 domains of self perceptions or self esteem?

Answer 10

Scholastic Ability
Athletic Competence
Physical Appearance
Behavioral Conduct
Social Acceptance

Question 11

What are self appraisals like under the age of 8?

Answer 11

Children under the age of 8 tend to have unrealistically positive self-appraisals

Question 12

When do self appraisals tend to become more realistic?

Answer 12

Self-appraisals become more realistic across development as children incorporate feedback from others. Children also distinguish among different kinds of competence and view themselves as better in some domains than others.Self-appraisals in each domain affects global self-esteem

Question 13

Higher self esteem in children is associated with parents who are…

Answer 13

• Accepting and affectionate
• involved with their children
• set clear and consistent rules
• consider the child’s views in family decisions

Question 14

What is the influence of peers and mentors on self esteem?

Answer 14

• Peers become increasingly influential across development, especially in the domains of Physical appearance, popularity, and athletic competence i.e., “Public domain” more influential than “private domain”
• Children who perceive teachers to be supportive have higher self-esteem
• Mentoring programs have positive effects on self-esteem But depends on consistency, quality, and duration of the mentoring

Question 15

What does research suggest about praising children and boosting self esteem?

Answer 15

Research suggests that overly praising (i.e., exaggerated and insincere) children for their talent and intelligence doesn’t help them achieve success; it sets them up for disappointment.
Have difficulty when facing challenges and do not receive accolades
May be outsourcing self-esteem – i.e., dependent on others’ praise.
Better to foster in children a “growth mind-set,” praise strategies and progress rather than abilities

Question 16

What is identity?

Answer 16

The definition of oneself as a discrete, separate entity

Who am I? in terms of religious views, political views, gender preference, occupational aspirations, etc.

Question 17

What stage of erikson’s theory pertains to identity?

Answer 17

Identity vs. identity (role) confusion

Question 18

What are Marcia’s identity statuses?

Answer 18

Identity diffusion (low exploration and low commitment) 
Identity foreclosure (low exploration and high commitment)
Identity moratorium (high exploration, low commitment)
identity achievement (high exploration, high commitment)

Question 19

What is identity achievement associated with?

Answer 19

associated with high self-esteem, cognitive flexibility, more mature moral reasoning, clearer goal setting, and better goal achievement

Question 20

What is identity foreclosure associated with?

Answer 20

more authoritarian and inflexible and more susceptible to extreme ideologies and movements, such as cults or radical political movements

Question 21

What is identity moratorium associated with?

Answer 21

anxious and intense, often have strained or ambivalent relationships with their parents and other authority figures; better adjusted than foreclosed or diffused identity status

Question 22

What is identity diffusion associated with?

Answer 22

viewed as the least mature in their identity development. Some are delinquents and abuse drugs; others are lonely or depressed; still others are angry and rebellious

Question 23

What influences identity development?

Answer 23

Puberty:Signals break from childhood. Awareness of self as a sexual being
Changes in cognitive functioning: Abstract reasoning influences thinking about the self. Ability to recognize different selves in different contexts

Question 24

what is ethnic identity?

Answer 24

Recognition of being a member of a particular race or ethnic group

Question 25

What are the 5 faces of ethnic identity?

Answer 25

Ethnic knowledge: children know that their ethnic group has distinguishing characteristics including behaviours, traits, customs, styles and language Ethnic Self-identification: children categorize themselves as a member of a particular ethnic group. Ethnic Constancy: Children understand that the distinctive features of their ethnic group are stable across time and situation and that membership in the group does not change. Ethnic behaviours: children enact and endorse behaviour patterns that distinguish their ethnic group. Ethnic preferences: children feel positive about belonging to their ethnic group and prefer their ethnic group's behaviour patterns.

Question 26

Describe the development of ethnic Identity (Infancy, preschoolers, and early elementary)

Answer 26

Infancy - babies look longer at faces of their own race than faces of other races Preschoolers – have a global understanding of their culture and use ethnic labels in a rote fashion Early elementary school – understand that identity does not change over time or context

Question 27

Describe the development of ethnic identity for adolescents

Answer 27

Adolescence - most active period of ethnic-identity development along with exploration of general identity. Having achieved a clear, positive ethnic identity is related to high self–esteem, more optimism, more social competence, more positive feelings toward the ethnic group

Question 28

What benefits are there for biracial children and youth?

Answer 28

Adolescents who identify with one race or the other are better adjusted than those with no clear identity

Question 29

How does parental socialization promote ethnic identity?

Answer 29

Impart knowledge about cultural traditions instill pride in their ethnic heritage prepare children for prejudice and discrimination based on their ethnicity

Question 30

How does parental socialization promote ethnic identity?

Answer 30

Spend time with members of own ethnic group, which contributes to more stable ethnic identity

Question 31

What changes in adolescents' ethnic identity when they have peer socialization?

Answer 31

Adolescents who spend time with members of other ethnic groups have more mature ethnic identities

Question 32

Describe a one year old's understanding of intentions and norms

Answer 32

understand that people’s actions are intentional and goal-directed

Question 33

Describe an 18-moth-olds understanding of intentions and norms

Answer 33

can recognize simple social norms

Question 34

Describe a two year old's understanding of intentions and norms (end of second year)

Answer 34

can describe scripts for social routines

Question 35

What is a script

Answer 35

a mental representation of an event or situation of daily life including the order in which things are expected to happen and how one should behave in that event or situation Eg., bedtime ritual, following rules for a game, etc.

Question 36

Describe the later understanding on mental states from the 'Theory of Mind' perspective

Answer 36

- Considered part of cognitive development - Children’s understanding that other people have mental states such as thoughts, beliefs, and desires that affect their behaviour. - It allows children to get beyond people’s observable actions and appearances and respond to their unseen states.

Question 37

What are the Trait Labels of a Preschooler?

Answer 37

Preschoolers – describe others in terms of physical characteristics; gradually use psychological descriptions

Question 38

What are the Trait Labels of a 5-7 year old?

Answer 38

Age 5-7 - recognize that people have psychological or personality attributes that: distinguish them from each other - are stable enough to predict how people will act at different times and in different situations

Question 39

What are the Trait Labels of a 9-10 year old?

Answer 39

Age 9-10 - describe another person’s actions less in terms of good or bad and more in terms of stable psychological traits

Question 40

What are the Trait Labels of an adolescent?

Answer 40

Adolescence - realize that people are full of complexities and contradictions

Question 41

What do children who have a higher social understanding also exhibit?

Answer 41

- do better on standard intelligence tests - exhibit more frequent prosocial behaviour - E.x., helping and sharing on the playground and in the classroom

Question 42

How do parental influences play a role in their child's social understanding?

Answer 42

- Children in families who frequently talk about mental states are more likely to succeed in theory-of-mind tasks - Helpful when parents’ conversations with their children include explanations of the causes and effects of mental states, using words such as “because,” “how,” and “why” - E.x., how did another child feel when their toy broke

Question 43

What are the two important types of interactions between siblings/friends that help improve social understanding? Also, why are they important?

Answer 43

- Two important types of interaction - Pretend Play - Dispute Resolution These interactions are important because they involve discussions about: - shared concerns - Interests - And goals with other children.

Question 44

How do experiences outside the family influence child social understanding?

Answer 44

- Child “brokers” who serve as go-betweens between immigrant parents and social institutions such as schools, hospitals, courts (they translate and negotiate) - These children do better on theory-of-mind tests

Question 45

List the five factors that help children develop knowledge about others and advance social understanding?

Answer 45

- child abilities - parental influences - siblings and friends - experiences outside the family - cultural influences

Question 46

Explain how cultural factors play a role in social understanding

Answer 46

Children across cultures acquire a theory of mind understanding at roughly the same age.

Question 47

What is a Stereotype?

Answer 47

A general label applied to individuals based solely on their membership in a racial, ethnic, or religious group, without an appreciation that individuals within the group very

Question 48

When do stereotypes start being exhibited

Answer 48

Some stereotypes are exhibited by at least age 5-6

Question 49

Define stereotype consciousness and when does it start.

Answer 49

- The knowledge that other people have beliefs based on and racial-ethnic stereotypes. - By around age 10, most children know that others hold stereotypes.

Question 50

Define prejudice

Answer 50

A set of attitudes by which an individual defines all members of a group negatively

Question 51

Explain prejudice across age

Answer 51

- Evident by age 5 - Age 7-9 – decrease in prejudice as children begin to appreciate the ways in which different groups are similar and that not all individuals within a group are the same (therefore prejudice decreases) - Late childhood to adolescence – prejudice may increase again

Question 52

Explain the expression of prejudice in early and late childhood

Answer 52

- Early childhood - avoidance and social exclusion | - Late childhood and adolescence - conflict and hostility

Question 53

What are the social determinants of prejudice?

Answer 53

- Prejudiced messages from parents, peers, schools, and media - Researchers in one study found that parents’ racial socialization began by the time their children were only 18 months old and predicted the children’s racial attitudes at ages 3 and 4 years - Children may develop prejudices even if their parents do not express them because of peer and media influences

Question 54

List three ways stereotypes and Prejudice can be reduced

Answer 54

- Increase contact between members of groups who are prejudiced toward each other - Point out the individual characteristics of members of the other group - Minimizing stereotypes of racial and ethnic groups in media such as books, television, and movies

Question 55

Define Phonemes

Answer 55

The smallest sound units that affect meaning in a language

Question 56

Define Semantics

Answer 56

The meanings of words and word combinations

Question 57

Define Syntax

Answer 57

The part of grammar that prescribes how words may combine into phrases, clauses, and sentences

Question 58

Define Pragmatics

Answer 58

A set of rules that specify the appropriate language for particular social contexts (e.g., classroom versus playground)

Question 59

What is preverbal communication

Answer 59

- Parents and infants often engage in a kind of dialogue of sounds, movements, and facial expressions (e.g., smiles) - Parents largely responsible for maintaining communication flow - Infants learn to use gestures to communicate

Question 60

Define Cooing (steps towards language)

Answer 60

A very young infant’s production of vowel-like sounds

Question 61

Define Babbling (steps towards language)

Answer 61

- An infant’s production of strings of consonant-vowel combinations

Question 62

When does Cooing first start?

Answer 62

Begins at the end of the first month

Question 63

Outline the timeline of baby Babbling

Answer 63

- Begins in the middle of the first year - Early babbling sounds the same regardless of native language exposure - By the end of the first year, babbling begins to take on the intonation of native language

Question 64

When do we say our first words?

Answer 64

10-15 months

Question 65

How many words can we say at 18 months?

Answer 65

75

Question 66

How many words can we say at age 2?

Answer 66

approximately 900

Question 67

How many words can we say at age 6?

Answer 67

8,000 words

Question 68

Explain what it means when comprehension develops ahead of production

Answer 68

when they can produce only 10 words, they already understand about 100

Question 69

What are the principles that assist with word learning?

Answer 69

- Words stand for people, objects, actions, and events | - A novel word refers to a novel person, object, action, or event rather than a familiar one

Question 70

What is the importance of social context in terms of acquiring words?

Answer 70

Words are learned in the course of everyday social exchanges with more competent language users

Question 71

Explain the learning of social language at age 2

Answer 71

- Children are skilled at engaging the attention of a listener and responding to listener feedback - Adjust speech to the situation - Adjust their speech to other children of different ages

Question 72

Explain the learning of social language in preschoolers

Answer 72

- Adjust speech when speaking to peers of different status - Limited speech in conversations in groups, on the phone, or about absent objects or their own feelings, thoughts, or relationships