Chapter 1: Theory Flashcards
What is the study of social development?
An examination of the influences of parents, peers, schools, media, community, culture on children’s social behaviours and ideas. May also affect other areas of development
What sense can newborns use to recognize their mother?
they can recognize their mother by smell
At what age can children experience jealousy?
even 2 year olds
What can having a close friend do?
Make up for being rejected by peers
What does the field of social development include?
Social behaviour, inidividual differences in social behaviour, changes in social behaviour and explanations for these changes
How were children viewed in the medieval period?
Children were viewed as miniature adults
What did Darwin study in regards to child development?
Study of development of emotions and study of child development began
What did Hall contribute to research?
introduced the use of questionnaires
What did Watson contribute to the field?
conditioning of social and emotional behavior
What did freud contribute to the field?
Biological view of social development was how adults handled basic drives
What did Gessell contribute to the field?
○ Maturation view of social skills. Development unfolds over time (i.e., genetics)
What is the role of ‘nature’ in social development?
Biology and Maturation: unfolding of increasingly complex social skills and abilities (predetermined by genetics)
What is the role of ‘nurture’ in social development?
Environment and learning
What is the modern view on the nature vs. nurture debate?
Environment + biology is the modern view not either/or (E.g., children’s aggression is a function of both testosterone level (biology) and early family experiences (environment)
What role do children play in their own development?
Passive (just passive consumers, absorbing information) or Active (active participants in the process of their development)
What is the transactional model of social development?
ongoing interchanges between social partners such as a parent and child across time that result in modifications of the social behaviour of each. this model emphasizes the process by which one actively shapes his/her own development
What are the appropriate units for studying social development?
Individual child, Social dyads (pairs of individuals like social partners, friends, parent-child), Social triads and Peer groups
Is development continuous or discontinuous?
It varies. Some believe it is smooth and gradual (continuous) vs. stage like (discontinuous: Freud, Piaget)
What is Siegler’s stance on whether development is continuous or discontinuous?
Are stages, but they happen gradually with strategiesE.g., toddler takes turns in playing with a toy but also grabs the toy on another day. Ebb and flow before a new strategy is acquired.
Is social development universal across cultures?
Culture free laws of development: acquiring the basic foundations of social life
Variation in beliefs and child rearing practices across cultural settings–> variation in social patterns.
What were the gradual shifts and significant events that made social development vary across historical eras?
Gradual shifts: Family timing and structure, Modes of communication, Mothers working outside the home
Significant events:
War, Economic depression, Natural disaster
What other areas do social interactions impact and get impacted by?
Emotional development Cognitive development Language development Motor development There is a Reciprocal nature of cross-domain influence
How important are mothers for child development?
Other caregivers (especially if primary) still have a tremendous impact on the child’s development
What is multifinality?
the divergence of developmental paths in which two individuals start out similarly but end at very different points (twins are an example of this)
What is equifinality?
the convergence of developmental paths in which children follow very different paths to reach the same developmental end point (i.e., adulthood, milestone)
What 3 sets of factors can influence social judgements and the labelling of social contexts?
Characteristics of the child
Characteristics of the adult
Characteristics of the context
Freuds psychodynamic perspective on development
Development is governed by unconscious biological drives and instincts. Structure of personality–> Id- instinctual drives that operate on the basis of the pleasure principle. Ego- the rational component of the personality emerges, which tries to satisfy needs through appropriate socially acceptable behaviours and Superego- the personality component that is repository of the child’s internalization (i.e., accepting and absorbing) of parental or societal values, morals and roles. All aspects of personality work together. Development is discontinuous in 5 distinct stages ( Oedipus complex and Electea complex
Eriksons Psychosocial theory
Erikson extended his stages through adulthood. For every stage, he specified the personal and social tasks that an individual must accomplish as well as the risks he or she would confront by failing to accomplish the tasks of that particular stage. Development depends on accomplishing the psychological tasks at each stage.
In contrast to Freud, Erikson gave greater recognition to role of the social environment in development (Charts in slides). Eriksons theory is lifespan theory and Freuds is childhood (0-18)
What are the strengths of the psychodynamic perspectives? (Erikson & Freud)
Emphasis on effects of early experience, family, and social interaction on behaviour and Identification of important contemporary themes and topics of social development- attachment, gender roles, aggression, morality
What are the weaknesses of the psychodynamic perspectives? (erikson and freud)
Freud: Difficult to test empirically. Freud’s theory not based on work with children (he worked with adults and learned about their childhood). Potentially biased means of collecting information (dreams, recall of events from childhood). Focus on sexuality too narrow and too exaggerated
Erikson: Difficult to test empirically, Mechanism for transitioning across stages not identified
What is classical conditioning?
(A traditional learning theory perspective) A type of learning in which a new stimulus is repeatedly repeated with a familiar stimulus until an individual learns to respond to the new stimulus in the same way as the familiar stimulus (Pavlov’s dogs: pairing of bell with food and salivate, Watson)
What is operant conditioning?
A type of learning that depends on the consequence of behavior; rewards (smile, praise, special treat) increase the likelihood that a behavior will recur, but punishment (frown, criticism, take away TV) decreases that likelihood (Skinner, Bijou and Baer)
What is drive reduction theory?
A version of learning theory suggesting that the association of stimulus and response in classical and operant conditioning results in learning only if it is accompanied by reduction of basic primary drives such as hunger and thirst, therefore “tensions” are reduced. (Hull)
What are the strengths of the traditional learning approaches?
Useful for explaining some aspects of child development. Emotion (e.g., reduce fear of dark), Behaviour modification (e.g., reduce aggressive behavior)
What are the limitations of the traditional learning approaches?
One size fits all perspective- not sensitive to changes in other areas of development (cognitive, social abilities etc.) or to child’s age
Neglects biological individual differences
What is Bandura’s social learning theory?
Importance of observational learning. Children learn social behaviours by observing and imitating others. Reintroduction of the person into the S–>R equation by focus on cognitive steps in learning through observation
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Bandura’s theory?
Strengths:
-Advanced understanding of several areas of social development especially aggression and self-control
-Practical applications –TV effects, modeling therapies to modify behavior (e.g., fear reduction)
- Strong empirical evidence
Weaknesses
-Not very developmental in scope, pays little attention to changes with age
-Minimal attention to individual differences (genetics, etc.)
-Questionable generalizability of lab studies to real-world contexts
How do the information processing theories work?
Use computers as metaphor to explain how people think:
Individuals attends to and input information, Changes info. into mental representations, Stores in memory, Compares to other memories, Generates possible responses, Make a decision and respond
What is the social information processing theory?
A version of information processing theory. In social situations, a child proceeds through a series of cognitive-processing decisions. Such as:
- Deciding another child’s intention
- Deciding on possible outcomes
- Evaluating potential outcomes for various outcomes
- Acting on a decision
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the social information processing theory?
Strengths:
-Emphasis on links between cognition and social behavior
-Clear specification of the social decision making steps in solving social problems
Weaknesses
-Not clear how cognitive-social behavior links change with age
-Not enough attention to emotion
-Too much emphasis on cognitive processes as deliberate or thoughtful vs. impulsive or automatic (It assumes that we always go through a methodical process)
What is piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
Piaget proposed 4 stages: Sensorimotor (0-2 years old), preoperational (2-7), concrete operations (7-12) and formal operations (>12 years). He also proposed two important processes Assimilation: applying an existing schema to a new experience and Accommodation: modifying an existing schema to fit a new experience
Describe the sensorimotor stage (0-2 years)
Differentiates self from objects and other people, seeks interesting sights, develops object permanence and basic understanding of causality; begins to imitate and begin in imagonative play
Describe the preoperational stage (2-7)
begins to use symbols and languages; problem solving is intuitive and thinking is egocentric, irreversible, centered
Describe the concrete operations stage (7-12)
can reason logically about present objects, grasps concepts of conversation, can take the perspective of another person, can organize objects into classes and series
Describe the formal operations stage (>12)
thinking is flexible and complex; can think about ideas and hypotheses
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Piaget’s theory?
Strengths
-Links between cognition and social reactions (object permanence and egocentrism)
Weaknesses
-Not enough acknowledgment of how children interact with others (vs. objects in the environment)
-Neglect of social, emotional, and cultural influences on development
-Stage theory criticized
What is object permanence?
the realization in infancy that objects and people do not cease to exist when they are no longer visible
What is egocentrism?
tending to view the world from one’s own perspective and to have difficulty seeing things from another’s viewpoint
What is vygotsky’s sociocultural theory?
theory that development emerges from interactions with more skilled people and institutions and tools provided by the culture. Principles of cultural influence and Zone of proximal development- the difference between children’s level of performance while working with more experienced partners (parents, teachers etc.)
What are the strengths and weaknesses of vygotsky’s theory?
Strengths
-Focused on assessing child potential via the ZPD
-Offered new perspective on ways to teach children
-Increased focus on cultural variation and historical influence
Weaknesses
-Measurement of ZPD is difficult
What is Brofennbrenner’s Ecological theory?
Systems approach- describes how children’s development is simultaneously affected by the different systems
Microsystem: the context in which children live and interact with the people and institutions closest to them (e.g., parents, teachers, peers)
Mesosystem: interrelations among the components of the microsystem (parents and teachers)
Exosystem: the collection of settings that impact child’s development but in which the child has more indirect contact (e.g., parent’s workplace)
Macrosystem- the system that surrounds the microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem, representing the values, ideologies and laws of the society or culture
Chronosystem: the time based dimension that can alter the operation of all other systems in Bronfenbrenner’s model, from micro-macro
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Bronfenbrenner’s theory?
strengths
-Attention to broad range of influential contexts
-Provides a bridge to other disciplines
Weaknesses
-Useful descriptive guide but does not explain underlying processes or mechanisms
-Does not explain how different contexts have different influences across development
What is the ethological theory?
(biological perspective) theory that behaviour must be viewed in a particular context and as having adaptive or survival value. Assumes behaviours are biologically based but behaviours are also modified by experience Therefore considers environmental influences and Critical period: a specific time in an organisms development during which external factors have a unique and irreversible impact
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the ethological theory?
Strengths:
-Several significant discoveries regarding social development based on animal research (E.g., emotional expression, attachment, group formation)
-Methods (Studying organisms in natural environment)
Weaknesses:
- Largely descriptive- but lacks explanation of mechanisms
- Narrowly defined critical period with regard to human development- as sometimes later environmental experiences can overcome early ones
What is the evolutionary developmental theory?
Focus on behaviours that ensure past survival of the species
The main questions are how and when in the course of childhood these adaptive capabilities emerge
Central principle: parents give their children attention and resources to ensure the passage of their genes through the next generation
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the evolutionary dvelopmental theory?
Strengths:
-Brings attention to adaptive value of several behaviours observed in childhood
Weaknesses:
-Limited relevance for addressing issues associated with rapid changes, such as new technological advances or sudden social shifts
-Post hoc explanations
What are human behaviour genetics?
Focuses on the relative contributions of heredity and environment to individual differences in human behavior using statistical estimation, without directly measuring genes or DNA
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Human behaviour genetics?
Strengths
-Emphasis on environmental causes of behavior
-Modern behavior geneticists acknowledge inputs from many sources
Weaknesses
-Need more specific measures of environment. Many measures are are general and non-specific, therefore hard to know how exactly environment modifies genetic expression.
What is the life span perspective?
Based on the notion that people are open to change across their lives beyond childhood and into adulthood. Change results from:
- Normative events (which most people experience at roughly the same age)
- Non-normative events (happen without warning, e.g., divorce)
- Historical events (Age cohorts - People who were born in the same time period and share historical experiences)
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the life span perspective?
Strengths:
-Emphasis on development as a life long process
-Emphasis on effect of historical events
-Examines changes in adults lives that can in turn affect children’s development
Weakness
-Emphasis on older populations
Why are there a variety of theoretical perspectives?
- No single theory adequately addresses social development
- Contemporary theories focus on specified domains
- Some theories are better at explaining some aspects of social behaviors than others
- All theories are need to address the broad nature of social development
What are the stages of Eriksons theory?
(0-1) Infancy: trust vs. mistrust Early childhood (1-3): Autonomy vs. shame Play age (3-6): Initiative vs. guilt school age (6-12): industry vs. inferiority Adolescence (12-20): Identity vs. identity confusion Young adulthood (20-30): intimacy vs. isolation Adulthood(30-65): Generativity vs. stagnation Mature age (65+): integrity vs. despair
What are Freud’s 5 stages?
Oral (0-1): focus on eating and taking things into mouth
Anal (1-3): Emphasis on toilet training; first experience with authority
Phallic (3-6): Increase in sexual urges arouses curiosity and alerts children to gender differences; period critical to the formation of gender identity
Latency (6-12): sexual urges repressed; emphasis on education and beginning of concerns for others
Genital (12-20): with puberty, sexual desires reemerge and adolescents and adults express these urges in romantic relationships with peers, possibly for reproduction
