Chapter 6 - Research Methods Flashcards
What are aims?
General statements that describe the purpose of an investigation
What is an experiment?
An experiment involves the manipulation of an independent variable to see what effect it has on the dependent variable, while at the same time controlling other variables which might affect the result
Explain the Stroop Experiment
- a pair sat together will label themselves 1 or 2.
- 2 needs to have something to be able to tell the time (clock/watch) and time their partner
- 1 will be facing the whiteboard and shown a list of 10 words to read out, with 2 timing how long it takes them to
What is a variable?
Something that can change or vary
What is an independent variable?
The variable that you manipulate
What is the dependant variable?
The variable that you measure
What is a hypothesis?
What the researcher expects
What is an alternate hypothesis?
A testable statement which predicts how one variable will effect another, its predicts the difference between conditions in an experiment
What is a Null Hypothesis?
Doesn’t state a difference and any differences will be due to chance not the IV
What is a directional hypotheses?
Predictions that state the direction results will go in
What is a non-directional hypotheses?
Predictions dont state the direction the result will go in
What is operationalisation of variables?
Stating a clear way of how the independent variable is going to be manipulated and how the dependent variable is to be measured
What is a pilot study?
Small scale trails run of the actual investigation
Why do we do pilot studies?
It saves money in the long run and allows you to identify any issues and modify the design
What are controls and what are they used for?
They are used by the researcher to make sure that the experiment is reliable
A control is something that is kept the same for each participant doing the experiment.
What are extraneous variables?
These are variables that need to be kept the same in an experiment.
They keep it the same so it doesn’t impact the results
What is a confounding variable?
If a extraneous variable is not controlled then it becomes a confounding varaiable
It needs to be controlled or it can effect the results
What is are extraneous variables divided into?
2 types:
Situational variable - eg time, heat and light
Participant variable - eg personality, gender and intelligence
What are demand characteristics?
A feature of a procedure that influences a participants to attempt to guess what the study is about and act a certain way by using clues.
What is the investigator effect?
Term used to describe subtle cues or signals from the experimenter that affect the performance of participants in studies
These cues may be unconscious such as muscle tension or vocal cues
How to control demand characteristics?
Single blind
Double blind
What is a single blind?
When either the ppt or the person conducting the investigation doesn’t know the aims
What is a double blind?
When be the ppt and the investigator is unaware of the aims
What is randomisation?
Using chance whenever possible to reduce the researchers influence
What is standardisation?
When everything is kept the same for each participant
Standardised procedures
Standardised instructions
What is experimental design?
Experimental design refers to the way in which participants are arranged in relaxation to the different experimental conditions
What is independent group design?
Participants only taking part in one condition of the experiment
(2 groups)
What is repeated measure design?
Participants take part in both conditions of the experiment
(1 Group)
What is matched pairs design?
Participants are matched on variables relevant to the experiment such as IQ and Gender. One of each participants is allocated to a different condition.
What are independent groups strengths?
No order effect
Less demand characteristics
What are independent groups weaknesses?
- differences between conditions could be because of participant variables ( can be controlled by random allocation)
- more expensive because you need twice as many groups
What is repeated measures strengths?
- any difference are likely to be due to change in IV not participant variables
- less participants needed
What are repeated measures weaknesses?
- order effects may occur because the participants are taking part in all of the conditions
- demand characteristics = easy to guess the aim because they have done it twice
What are the strengths of matched pairs?
- no order effects
- Participants variables are reduced because they are matched
What are the weaknesses for matched pairs?
- can’t be matched exactly
- time consuming as well as expensive
What are order effects?
Carrying out a task repeatedly leads to changes in performance
What are the 2 different types of order effects?
Boredom effect - deteriorariation of performance across conditions
Practice effects - improvement across conditions through familiarity of the task or enviroment
How can we control order effects?
- leave big gaps
- counterbalance design
- matched pairs or independent groups design
What is counterbalancing?
Splitting a sample in half and group 1 will do condition A then B and Group 2 will do condition B then A.
This doesn’t remove or prevent it but attempts to balance it
What are the 4 types of experiment?
- lab experiments
- field experiments
- natural experiments
- quasi experiments
What is a laboratory experiment?
An experiment that is carried out in highly controlled conditions, it involves the manipulation of the IV.
A lab can be anywhere where variables can be well controlled
What is a field experiment?
An experiment that is conducted in the real world, that involves the manipulation of the IV
What is a Natural experiment?
The researcher monitoring an inevitable event that has a pre-existing IV, can be in a lab or out on the field.
What is a Quasi Experiment?
An experiment that has an IV which is a difference between people such as age.This variable just exists it isn’t manipulated.
What are the strengths of a lab experiment ?
- it has high control over extraneous variables, so that its more likely the effect on the DV is from the manipulated IV (high internal validity)
- its easy to replicate because of the level of control, so they can see if the results are valid or are a one off
What are the weaknesses of a lab experiment?
- lack in generalisability because of the artificial environment, this means participants may act differently (low external validity)
- the participants will be aware that they are in an experiment so may act differently (demand characteristics)
- no real life experience (low mundane realism)
What are the strengths of a field experiment?
- it has a higher mundane realism because of the natural environment, and results in real-behaviour which will be valid.If they are unaware they are being studied it increase the external validity.
What are the weaknesses for a field experiment?
- loss of control of extraneous variables, so replication is often impossible.
- ethical issues, some participants may be aware they are involved in the study and invades their privacy
What are the strengths for natural experiments?
- provides opportunities for experiments to take place that may not be done for ethical and practical reasons
- it has high external validity because it involves real life
What are the weaknesses of natural experiments?
-occurs rarely so little opportunity for study
- participants may not be randomly allocated so researcher may be unaware whether the IV is effecting the DV or another factor
What are the strengths of the Quasi experiment?
- carried out under controlled conditions and share strengths of lab study
What are the weaknesses of a Quasi experiment?
- Connor randomly allocated participants and therefore may have confounding variables
What is a target population?
a group of people from whom the sample is drawn.
Why do psychologists use sampling techniques?
to choose people who are representative of the population as a whole. So results can be generalised for the target population.
What is opportunity sampling?
consists of taking the sample from people who are available at the time of the study and fit the criteria you are looking for.
What is random sampling?
every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen, first everyone needs to be identified and the number needed will be picked.
What is volunteer sampling?
consists of participants becoming part of a study because they volunteer when asked or in response to an ad.
What is systematic sampling?
every nth number of the target population is selected
What is stratified sampling?
classifying the population into groups and then choosing a sample which consists of participants from each group in the same proportions as the population, then a selection is done random.
What is an advantage and disadvantage for opportunity sampling?
+ quick and easy to select sample
- could be a biased sample
What is an advantage and a disadvantage for random sampling?
+ everyone has an equal chance of being picked
- you would need a list of the whole target population
What is an advantage and a disadvantage for volunteer sampling?
+ relatively easy way of achieving a sample
- may not represent the target population
What are the advantages and disadvantages of systematic sampling?
+ unbiased
- but not truly unbiased
What is the advantages and disadvantages of stratified sampling?
+ likely to be the most representative
- requires a lot of work
What are ethics?
ethical issues arise when there is a conflict between the participants rights and the researchers need to gain valuable research
do the ends justify the means?
What are the ethic issues recorded on BPS’s guideline?
lack of informed consent
deception
right to withdraw
protection from harm
privacy and confidentiality
What is informed consent and how can we make sure that there isnt a lack of it?
It is making the participants aware of the aims of the research however researcher don’t want to do this as they may act differently, so
participants can sign a consent form
What is deception an dhow do we avoid it?
deliberately misleading information or withholding it from participants
deception can be justified
a debrief can solve this so they can learn the aims afterwards
What is the right to withdraw and how do we avoid the participants being unaware of it?
Participants must be made aware that they can withdraw themselves and information even if paid, this may be included at the beginning and in the debrief.
What is protection from harm and how do we enforce it?
Protection from both physical and psychological harm such as, embarrassment, stress and any risk that lead to injury
This can be avoid by using health and safety standards and having a debrief at the end of the experiment
What is the privacy and confidentiality rules?
data is protected by law, we can use initials to mark different people
What is validity?
refers to how legitimate something is as an explantiation of behaviour
What is internal validity?
what goes on within the experiment and does it effect the relate to the manipulation of the IV
What are the factors that affect internal validity?
- control of extraneous variables = will it cause change to the DV?
- whether the researcher tested what was intended
- demand characteristics
- investigator effects
What is external validity?
looks for factors outside the experiment, its directly affected by the internal validity so the results are unable to be generalised if it has low external validity
What are external validity concerns?
- ecological validity = concerns for generalising the results
- mundane realism = how does the experiment mirror the real world
- temporal validity = does it hold against time
What are ethics?
Ethics arise when there is a conflict between the participants rights and the researchers need to gain valuable information
What are observations?
Way to see what people would do without having to ask them.
What are controlled naturalistic and controlled observations?
Naturalistic - everyday setting that the target behaviour naturally occurs in.
Controlled - observations that take place somewhere where variables are controlled and manipulated by the researcher.
What is covert and overt observations?
Covert - where the researcher is hidden and the participants are unaware that they are being watched
Overt - where the researcher is in clear view and the participants are aware that they are being watched
What are participants and non-participant observations?
Participants = where the researcher is directly involved in the study
Non - participant = where the researcher doesn’t participate and behaviour is recorded in an objective manner
What are the advantage and disadvantages of an overt observations?
+ more ethically acceptable because its gained informed consent
- they act differently causing participant reactivity
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a covert observation?
+ participant reactivity has been removed increasing the validity
- ethics need to be considered, there is no consent
What are the Advanatges and disadvantages of participant observations?
+ researcher has extra insight which increases the validity
- researcher may loose objectivity and become too invested
What are the advantages and disadvantages of non - participants?
+ researcher is able to maintain objective psychological distance
What are the Advanatges and disadvantages of controlled observations?
+ easier to replicate because there is a higher level of control
- low external validity and may not be able to be generalised
What are the Advanatges and disadvantages of naturalistic observations?
+ high external validity and can be gernalised to everyday life
- difficult to replicate
- extraneous variables
What is a structured observational design?
Simplifying the target behaviours so that their is a pre-determined list
What is unstructured observational design?
Writing down everything the researcher sees which results in rich detail results ( qualitative)
What are the Advanatges and disadvantages of structured observational design?
+ recording data and analysing it is easier and more systematic
+ less risk of observer bias
- much less detail and doesn’t provide all behaviours
What are the Advanatges and disadvanatges of unstructured observational design?
+ greater detail
- more difficult to record and analyse data
- observer bias
What are behaviour categories?
Behaviours need to broken down so they can be measured so we use behaviour checklist/categories
This is similar to to operationalisation, it makes sure that all investigators interpret the behaviour the same
What are the strengths and weaknesses of behavioural categories?
+ can make data collection structured and objective
- if categories aren’t clear they may lead to other interpretations
- categories must not overlap or can be difficult to discern
What are the 2 sampling methods?
Event sampling - counting the number of times an event happens in a target group
Time sampling - recording behaviour in a pre-established time frame
What are the strengths and weaknesses of event sampling?
+ good for when behaviours happen infrequently so they aren’t missed
- if behaviour is too complicated it can be missed
What are the strengths and weaknesses of time sampling?
+ reduces the amount of observations needed
- due to it being a certain time frame it may not be representative
What is inter-observer reliability?
Using 2 or more researchers to reduce bias
Its used to compare rating of 2 or more observers
It refers to the extent to which different observers rate the same behaviour
How do you improve internet-observer reliability?
- families themselves with behaviour categories
- observes behaviour at the same time
- compare data and discuss any differences
What are self-report techniques?
Data collection techniques that allow participants to enter information about themselves
Questionnaire and interviews
What are the strengths and weaknesses of self-report techniques?
+ allows participants a chance to describe their own experience
+ large amounts of data can be collected quickly increasing the generalisability
- social desirability bias
- leading questions
- questions may be interpreted differently
What are questionnaires?
Set questions that are written down for participants to fill out
They are used by psychologists to assess thoughts and feelings
What are the strengths and weaknesses of questionnaires?
+ data can be collected quickly
+ more likely to get honest answers
- low validity because answers aren’t always truthful
- respondents may not be picking true answers because they just want to complete the questionnaire
What are open questions?
Free response questions that you can explain your answer
Qualitative data
What are the strengths and weaknesses of open questions?
+ respondents can respond fully increasing the validity of
+ increases insight
- time consuming
- difficult to compare notes
What are closed questions?
Questions with limited range of responses
Quantitive data
What are the strengths and weaknesses of closed questions?
+ easily able to sort though the results
- answers may not represent true thoughts
- data such as ‘don’t know’ isn’t informative
What are 3 types of closed questions?
Rating scales
Likely scales
Fixed choice question
What are rating scale questions?
Closed questions that the participant has to answer in the scale
What are likely scales?
Closed questions where respondents are asked to state on a scale how much they agree or disagree with a statement
What is a fixed choice question?
A closed question where the respondents are given options to select which options apply to them
What are the 3 factors to consider with Questionaire construction?
Clarity - is it clear?
Bias - are there leading questions and does it avoid social desirability bias
Analyse - are the results going to be easy to analyse
What are filler questions?
Questions that distract the respondent from the true aims of the study
What are sequence for the questions?
They usually structure the questions in an order that puts the easier to answer questions first and the anxiety provoking ones last
What are interviews?
An interaction between an interviewer and interviewee that can be conducted over the phone or face to face
What is a structured interview?
An interview that uses a pre-set list of questions that can be asked face-to-face or over the phone
What is an unstructured interview?
An interview that has no set questions and a certain topic that is discussed
What is semi-structured interview?
An interview which falls in the middle, it has a set of questions that can be deviated from
What are the strengths and weaknesses of structured interviews?
+ easily repeated
+ using the same questions reduces the differences in the study
- interview bias so low validity
- cannot deviate form the questions
What are the strengths and weaknesses of an unstructured interview?
+ more detailed so higher validity
+ access new insight from deviated questions
- could ask ;evading questions which lowers validity
- needs trained interviewers
What factors are considered when constructing an interview?
- may write/record responses
- may be standardised
- Environmental its conducted in
- natural questions
- reminded about confidentiality
What are correlations?
An illustration of the strength and direction of ana association between to co-varaibles
What are the 3 types of correlation?
Positive
Negative
Zero/no
What direction does positive correlation go?
From 0 to the max
What is the difference between correlations and experiments?
Experiments require the manipulation of the IV whereas with a correlation there is no manipulation
What are correlation strengths?
+ useful for research - provides precise measure of how the 2 variables are measured
+ quick and economic - controlled environment and can use secondary data
What are correlations weaknesses?
- doesn’t show the cause - only shows how it correlates
- third variable problem - may be another variable that cause the change in one of the varaiables
What is qualitative data?
Language, includes thoughts and opinions, can be recorded or a written account
What is quantitative data?
Numbers
Numerical data in form of individual scores
Data can be analysed statistically
What is primary data?
First hand data that is collected by the researcher
What is second hand data?
Data that already exists
Such as government websites and books
Evaluate qualitative data?
+ richer detail - greater insight
+ greater external validity - further insight
- difficult to analyse - patterns might be difficult to find
Evaluate quantitative data?
+ simple to analyse
+ objective - so less bias
- low ecological validity - represents real-life
Evaluate primary data?
+ specific for the task - designed to collect required data
- time consuming and expensive
Evaluate secondary data
+ easily accessed and inexpensive - data already exists
- quality and accuracy - may not be complete and out-dated
