Chapter 2 - Memory Flashcards
1
Q
The three types of memory registers
A
Sensory memory, Short term memory and long term memory
2
Q
What are the 3 types of long term memory
A
Episodic memory,semantic memory and procedural memory.
3
Q
What is the definition of memory?
A
The ability to retain learned information and past events and be able to retrieve it.
4
Q
What are the 2 memory models?
A
The multi-store model
The working memory model
5
Q
What is coding?
A
How information is stored.
6
Q
What is capacity?
A
How much information is stored in one place.
7
Q
What is duration?
A
How long a memory lasts.
8
Q
Who researched the duration of short term memory?
A
Peterson and Peterson
9
Q
How did Peterson and Peterson study the duration of short-term memory?
A
He had 24 participants.They were each told a consonant syllable followed by 3 digits.Then they were asked to do a distracted task of counting backs from the 3 digits in 3’s or 4’s for 3,6,9,12,15 and 18 seconds.After they were asked to recall the letters.
10
Q
What were the average results for Peterson and Peterson’s STM duration study?
A
3 seconds - 80%
18 seconds - 10%
Recall got worse the longer the delay.
11
Q
Duration of STM Evaluation (Peterson and Peterson)
A
Advantages :
Easy to carry out
Disadvantages :
Its an artificial stimulus so it lacks external validity
Difficult to control conditions of the study
We can remember meaningless things
12
Q
Who studied the duration of long term memory?
A
Bahrick et al
13
Q
What did Bahrick do to study the duration of LTM?
A
Bahrick invited participants to take place in a free recall,photo recognition and name recognition test. During the free recall, participants were asked to recall as many as the ex classmates as they could.Then the photo recognition test was using photos of classmates as prompts and then the name recognition test was matching the photos of classmates to their names.
14
Q
Bahricks results from the duration of LTM study?
A
15 years - 90% names + faces and 60% free recall
30 years - 30% free recall
48 years - 80% names + faces and 40% photo
15
Q
What is the evaluation for Bahricks duration of LTM
A
Advantages:
high in ecological validity
Meaningful information
Disadvantages :
hard to control all variables
Less reliable
In touch with classmates
Result isn’t generalised
16
Q
What are the 3 types of coding?
A
Visually
Acoustically
Semantically
17
Q
Who proposed a study on Coding in STM and LTM?
A
Baddeley
18
Q
What was Baddeley’s method for testing coding in STM and LTM?
A
He had participants take a hearing test beforehand.They were then presented a lists of words, they could be from List A : acoustically similar words,List B: acoustically dissimilar words, List C : semantically similar words and List D : semantically dissimilar words.To test the STM after each set they were asked to repeat them but for LTM they were asked to recall them 20 minutes later.
19
Q
What was Baddeley’s results for coding in the STM and LTM?
A
It showed that the most common form for encoding in the STM is acoustic and in the LTM is semantic.
20
Q
Who studied the capacity of STM?
A
Jacobs
21
Q
How did Jacobs study the capacity of STM?
A
He presented participants with a string of letters and they would repeat it back in the same order, each time the amount of number or letters said would increase by 1 each time until the participant gets it wrong.
22
Q
What were the results for Jacobs capacity of STM test?
A
Majority of 9 digits or 7 letters
He also concluded that our short term can hold 5-9 items
23
Q
Who suggested the magic number?
A
Millier
24
Q
What s the magic number?
A
7 plus or minus 2
25
Why is it plus or minus 2?
Due to chunking
26
What is chunking?
Putting information together based on its similarity to other information and makes it easy for us to remember.
27
Wh found evidence for the sensory register?
Sperling
28
How did Sperling discover the evidence for the sensory register?
He held up a list of numbers/letters briefly and asked participants to recall the letters.Most could recall a portion of them showing the iconic memory in the Sensory memory store.
29
What were the results for Sperling study?
Free recall of 4-5 out of 9
30
Who came up with the Primacy and Recency effect?
Glanzer and Gunitz
31
How did Glanzer and Glunitz study the primacy and recency effect?
They gave participants a list of words 1 at a time and then tested there free recall under 2 conditions. One was immediate recall the otehr was a distract or task.
32
What did Glanzer and Glunitz find?
That words at the start were remembered easier as well as the words at the end but the words in the middle were harder to remember.
33
What are the advantages of the multi-store model?
It’s the earliest but the still used today.
Considerable research for the distinction of the different memory stores.
Case studies exist to back it up like : HM as he has an intact STM but a damaged LTM so can’t recall new information after a long period of time.
The recency effect backs up the MSM because it shows that recent information is still in the STM and the primary information is in the LTTM.
34
Who put forward the idea of the Multi-store memory model?
Atkinson and Shiffrin
35
What are the 2 types of rehearsals and which one is used in STM and LTM?
Maintenance rehearsal - used in STM
Elaborative rehearsal - used in LTM
36
What are the 3 types of LTM?
Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory
Procedural Memory
37
Who argued that the MSM was too simplistic and that there were 3 different types of LTM?
Tulving
38
What is Episodic Memory?
The ability to recall events form our lives, they are timestamped memories with lots of elements attached like people, places and behaviours.Takes a conscious effort to recall.
39
What is Semantic Memory?
Our knowledge and facts and a broad range of world concepts.Not time stamped.These memories have to be deliberately recalled.
40
What is Procedural Memory?
Contains the knowledge of how we do things like riding a bike. Don’t require conscious awareness and are muscle memories.
41
What is the Evaluation on Tulving’s 3 LTM stores?
Advantages :
Case studies to back it up such as KF and Clive Wearing
Real world application helps to come up with strategies to improve memory in the elderly
Disadvantages : Buckner and Peterson think semantic is on left side of pre-frontal cortex and episodic on right but Tulving thought the other way around.
Another explanation : Cohen thought there was only 2 stores (Declarative and non-declarative)
42
Summary of Clive Wearing case study
Contracted viral infection, it attacked his brain so he lost the ability to transfer memories from STM to LTM.Has a memory of about 18 seconds.Still can recall some old events.Procedural memory still intact.
43
Summary of HM case study
On his 16th birthday suffered an epileptic fit and got worse as he got older.So Dr Scoville suggested to remove that part of his brain. It got better but he could form new memories as his epididymis memory was taken away but he still has his procedural.
44
Summary of KF case study
Was in a motorcycle accident, he has normal LTM but his STM has damaged parts, he can now only remember 1 piece of information at a time.
45
What are the 5 parts of the Working memory model?
Central executive
Visuospatial sketch pad
Episodic buffer
Phonological loop
LTM
46
What is the central executives job?
Supervises and coordinates info to and from the other parts of the slave system.
47
What is the visuospatial sketch pad?
Spilt into 2
Visual cache - visual colour
Inner scribe - spatial and movement.
48
What is the episodic buffer?
Intergrates information from other components
49
What is the Phonological loop?
The phonological loop recodes written information into articulatory code.
Its split into :
Articulatory control system - inner voice
Phonological store - inner ear
50
What are the evaluation points from the Working memory model?
Advantages :
Clinical evidence to back up : KF’s study his phonological loop was damaged.
Dual task performance - supports the spectate existence of visuospatial sketch pad because participants count do 2 visual tasks at the same time but could do visual and a verbal.
Disadvantages :
Lack of clarity over central executive - needs to be more clearly specified.
51
Explanations for forgetting
1. Interference and similarity
2 Retrieval failure due to absence of cues
52
Explanations for forgetting
1. Interference and similarity
2 Retrieval failure due to absence of cues
53
What are the 2 interferences with a definition?
Proactive interference - old information interferes with new information.
Retroactive interference - new information interferes with old information.
54
What did research say about similar memories?
Interference is worse when memories are similar.
55
Who found out about similarity ?
McGeoch and Mcdonald in 1931
56
Why do similar memories cause interference?
Because previously stored information is more difficult to store and overwrite memories.
57
What is the procedure did McGeoch and McDonald use to study retroactive interference?
The changed the similar material. They did this by giving participants a list of words to learn to 100% accuracy and then they were required to learn a new list that was either: synonyms, antonyms, unrelated words, nonsense syllabes, three-digit numbers and just resting.
58
What did McGeogh and McDonald’s find out about their study?
That the most similar words were the worst recall.
It shows us that interference is the strongest when memories are similar
59
What does McGeoch and McDonalds research show about similarity?
That interference is strongest when memories are similar.
60
Who conducted research evidence for proactive interference?
Keppel and Underwood
61
What was Keppel and Underwoods procedure for researching proactive interference?
They asked participants to recall consonant trigrams after varying intervals, while counting backwards in 3’s.
62
What did Keppel and Underwood find?
That forgetting increased with the longer the interval but little to no forgetting of the trigrams from the start of the procedure.
The earlier memory of the consonants had entered into the long term memory and was interfering with the memory of later consonants.
63
Who conducted research on retroactive interference?
Underwood and Postman
64
What was Underrwodo and postman’s procedure?
Participants were divided into 2 groups, Group A were asked to learn a list of paired words then asked to learn a second list of paired words,Group B were only asked to learn the first list.
65
What was the results to Underwood and Postman’s retroactive interference?
That Group B was more accurate, and they concluded that learning items in the second list interfered with participants ability to recall.
66
Evaluation of Retroactive interference study?
Most research comes from a lab study BUT counter arguemnet is Baddley and Hitches experiment with the rugby players.
Interference and cues,
67
Who suggested retrieval failure?
Tulving
68
What is the Encoding Specificity Principle?
‘The greater the similarity of the encoding ever and the retrieval event the greater the likelihood of retrieving that memory.’
69
What are the 2 dependences ?
Context dependent
State dependent
70
What is context dependencies?
Environmental cues and the place it was encoded
71
What is state dependency?
Internal cues and the state that the mind is in
72
Evaluation of retrieval failure
+ Supporting evidence- there are many supporting pieces of evidence such as Godden and Baddeley + Carter and Cassaday so it has an high level of validity
- Questing context effects - Baddeley argued that some context effects aren’t string enough or are too rare so its doesn’t show real-life application
- recall versus recognition - Baddeley and Godden redid their experiment with recognition instead of recall and it’s was the same in all 4 conditions so the presence of cues only affect memory in a certain way
73
What is eye witness testimony?
A witnesses recount being used in court
74
What affects the accuracy of EWT?
Misleading infomation
Anxiety
Schema
New information
75
What was Loftus and Palmers first experiment?
45 participants watched a car crash into another
Then ppt were asked what speed the car was going but to each participant the verb was changed and the more violent the verb the faster they thought the car was going.
76
Evaluate Loftus and Palmers first experiment on leading questions
- Low ecological validity - the participants knew that it was an experiment. But in real-life they wouldn’t know somethings as about t happen so is this actually a test for surprise
-participants - they were all student so don’t repress the general population
+ usefulness - its now used in police questioning and in teaching
77
What were the suggested explanations from Loftus and Palmers first experiment?
Response bias - different speed estimates because of the different verbs being used and it influence the response
Memory is altered and the critical word changes the persons memory of the event
78
What was Loftus and Palmers second experiment?
150 students were shown a short film that showed a multi-vehicle accident and either asked the question
Group 1 - How fast they ‘hit’ each other
Group 2 - How fast they ‘smashed’ into each other
And a week later they were asked if there was any smashed glass (there wasn’t)
79
What was Loftus and Palmers second experiment results?
16/50 who heard the verb smashed said yes
7/50 who heard hit said yes
In the control group 6/50 said yes
80
Summaries the case study of Jenifer Thompson
She sent the wrong man to prison because she identified him on the stand
He forgave her and now the police have switched to double blind technique so police doesn’t know who is suspected on the line up
81
What are the post event discussion theories?
Source monitoring theory - memories are genuinely distorted and they can recall information but dont know here its from and it can lead to source confusion
Conformity theory - not actually distorted and they are changing between the accounts for approval or they believe someone else’s opinion or perspective is correct
82
What was Gabbert et al’s study for post event discussion?
60 uni students and 60 adults watched a video of a girl stealing money form a wallet
They were then tested either in a pair of individually, pairs were given time to discuss what they saw and they were the co-witness group and the individuals were the control group
One of the pair actually saw the girl steal the other didn’t actually see them stealing they then completed a questionnaire
83
What were the results from Gabbert et al’s study?
71% recall information that they didn’t actually see
60% said the girl was guilty even tough they never saw her commit the crime
84
What is the evaluation of Gabbert et al’s study
- Lacks questionable ecological validity - ppt would all see a different perspective in real life but would have paid as close attention because they would have known that they were going to be tested on it.
+ Population validity - uses both adults and students
85
Evaluation of leading information
- Anastasi and Rhodesia discovered people in age group 18-25 and 35-45 has better recall than someone in the age 58-78 group. But, own age bias means that they could recall information about someone in their age group.
Demand characteristics - Zaragosa and McCloskey argued that lab studies are a result of demand characteristics as the ppt dont want to let the researcher down
86
What is the assumption of the impact of anxiety?
A little of anxiety is good but high levels can lead to a decrease in accuracy
87
How did the weapon focus effect come about?
Loftus used the study of anxiety in eyewitness testimony (negative) to come up with a theory that the person will focus on the weapon because they feel at risk
88
What was Johnson and Scott’s study on anxiety’s impact on EWT?
Two groups are in waiting room waiting to take part in a experiment
Group 1 - witness a friendly discussions and a man emerges from the room with grease on his hands holding a pen
Group 2 - witness a heated discussion with furniture being overturned and a man emerges with blood on his hands and bloody paperknife
G1 had 49% people who accurately pointed him out
G2 had 33% people accurately pointed him out
High anxiety caused people to look
89
What is the evaluation of Johnson and Scotts study?
- Not ethical - no consent and can cause psychological harm
+ ecologically valid
90
What is Yerkes-Dodson law ?
Can be called the inverted U theory - states that performance will increase with stress but soon it will decrease nice its reached a certain point. Too little or too much is dangerous for eyewitness testimony
It can increase our awareness
91
What is the standard police interview?
Establish rapport
Start with open questions
Listen for a few seconds then ask a short answer
Used a standardised chechklist
Ask leading questions and dont do nothing to assist
Dominate witness with lots of questions
Victim is passive
92
What is the definition for cognitive interview?
Police technique for interviewing a witness to a crime it will encourage them to recreate the orignal context so it increases the accessibility of stored information.
93
Why is the cognitive interview important?
Improves the effectiveness of questioning it witnesses in police interviews
Applys the findings of psychological findings to this area
94
What is Fisher and Gieselman do?
They reviewed memory literature and found people could remember things better if provided retrieval cues
95
What are the 4 stages of the cognitive approach?
1 report everything
2 reinstate the context
3 reverse the order
4 change the perspective
96
What can impact the memory of an interviewee?
Sex of investigator
Opinion on the police
Speed of the interview
97
What is the enhanced cognitive interview?
- spend time establishing rapport with the witness and explain the process
- dont rush or interrupt the witness
- close the interview appropriately and make sure witness has a contact method
98
What are the problems with the cognitive interview?
Time consuming.
Information can be superfluous
An increase on inaccurate information
99
Who are Wright and Holliday?
They investigated how age effects the recall and they said that the older the witness the less accurate the recall was
But when they used the cognitive interview technique they actually found that older participants recalled more detail without giving false information
100
Who was Kohnken et al?
Meta analysis of 50 studies and found on average on a 34% increase in amount of correct information generated in cognitive interview compared to standard interview
But they were al uni students so can’t be generalised
101
Who was Miline and Bull?
- found each element of cognitive interview was a more effective than standard interview but when a combination of report everything and mental reinstatement was used participants recall was significantly higher
But it’s in a lab so artificial and lacks ecological validity
