Chapter 6 - Attn & memory Flashcards
Define the information processing approach and its three underlying assumptions. Describe the importance of sensory memory.
The information processing approach describes how humans process stimuli via a computer metaphor. Information is transformed, coded, and stored once it enters the brain, just as it is with a computer.
There are three fundamental assumptions accompanying the information processing approach.
- people actively contribute to their own processing of stimuli.
- information remembered can be examined as performance by researchers to determine age-related differences.
- processing information relies on several qualities.
Sensory memory is important because it is the first instance that new information is introduced to someone. Sensory memory is brief and takes in a large amount of information in a quick period of time. Sensory information is also important because if we do not pay attention to it, much of it becomes lost.
What is speed of processing? What are processing resources? What is inhibition, and what is the evidence for an inhibitory deficit with aging?
Speed of processing is simply how fast and effectively the first stages of information processing respond to stimuli.
The amount of attention or cognitive “energy” one needs to devote to a certain task or situation is referred to as processing resources.
Inhibition is the inability to block out unnecessary information that does not relate to the task at hand.
Research shows that people aged 85 and older have more task-irrelevant thoughts during processing and show difficulty eliminating them.
Describe the research on divided attention, and explain what it reveals about aging. What is automatic processing and effortful processing, and how do they relate to aging?
It is the individual tasks that they have an increased difficulty with, not the attention they apply to them. Evidence shows that older adults are just as able to multitask, but at a slower rate as each separate task takes longer to perform in comparison to younger adults.
Automatic processing is processing of stimuli that does not involve much energy and seems to be almost mindless as we are largely unaware of new information entering the system. Automatic processes do not show significant declines with age.
Effortful processing is deliberately using all attentional capacity in full awareness. Age differences are susceptible to measurement conditions meaning results can change if functional capacity and resources can be modified in task contexts.
Describe the terms below, and summarize the major findings in each area.
a. Working memory
b. Implicit memory
c. Long-term memory
d. Encoding and retrieval
a) The active processes and structures used to keep information in mind and at the same time use that information is called working memory. Working memory is said to have a short capacity. Rehearsal plays a large role in keeping information in working memory. Possible reasons for decline in working memory ability include the order of tasks and task interference.
b) Unconsciously or unintentionally realizing retrieving information is referred to as implicit memory. Age differences are shown in learning sequences and depend on the specific implicit memory task.
c) The ability to remember widespread information from seconds to decades it referred to as long-term memory. Semantic memory remains mostly stable with age whereas episodic memory shows a decline.
d) Encoding processes and retrieval are shown to decline with age as older adults are less likely to use helpful strategies when learning new information. Poorer strategy use leads to poor memory recall age differences and an increase in retrieval problems.
What is prospective memory, and how is it affected with age? Describe the difference between event-based vs. time-based tasks. Provide original examples. What is autobiographical memory, and what are the findings associated with age? Provide original examples.
Remembering to remember something such as an action or event, in the future is called prospective memory. An example of this would be remembering your grandpa’s 75th birthday. With age, people need clear prioritization and benefit more from reminders of tasks. Time-based tasks display more age differences.
An event-based task is a situation when a specific external event occurs, and a planned action is to performed. An example of an event-based task may be running a relay race. When the event of someone passing you the baton occurs, you are then allowed to run your part of the race.
Planning an action to occur after a specific amount of time is called a time-based task. An example of a time-based task would be remembering to take your medication at 4:00 pm each day.
Remembering events and facts about your own life is called autobiographical memory.
Over time, the details of an autobiographical event may change. The details one remembers at 30 years old may not be the ones at the front of their memory when asked about the same event 10 years later. Surprisingly, details of memorable or traumatic events are predisposed to change as well. Memories can often be wrong in this case.
Describe source memory and false memory, and explain the age differences found in each. Provide original examples. What factors can help to preserve memory?
An individual that is able to recollect how they obtained a certain memory and determine if the event was imagined or actually lived, is using source memory.
Older adults have been found to be less accurate when completing source-memory tasks, seemingly because they are less able to correctly link an item to the context in which it was learned.
An individual that remembers items or events that did not occur is using false memory. Older adults tend to be more susceptible to false memory. Linking correct content to its context and separating relevant context from irrelevant or misleading context are difficulties older adults face that may result in their susceptibility.
Exercise, multilingualism, and semantic memory are all factors that help preserve memory.
What are the two types of memory self-evaluation, and what are the reported age differences in each? Describe memory self-efficacy, and explain why it is important.
The two types of memory self-evaluation are metamemory and memory monitoring.
Metamemory is what we believe about memory and how memory works. Memory monitoring is the awareness of using our memory in the present. For example, knowing how to study that best suits your learning style is using your memory monitoring.
Younger adults seem to be more knowledgeable about how memory works than older adults. It is important to note that the ability to monitor one’s memory does not seem to decline with age.
Memory self-efficacy is the belief one holds in oneself to perform a specific task. Memory self-efficacy is important in accounting for performance and explaining performance predictions. It has been shown that older adults with lower memory self-efficacy display lower performance levels on memory tasks.
Summarize the research on memory training, focusing on external memory aids, internal memory aids, and memory drugs.
Memory strategies can be organized meaningfully such as the E-I-E-I-O framework by Camp and colleagues (1993). This framework merges explicit and implicit memory with external and internal memory aids to provide a range of intervention options to help people remember.
External aids are environmental objects such as phones or agendas. External aids can involve an external device or can involve an external aid to cue action such as setting the laundry at the top of the stairs to remind yourself to clean it. For external cues to be most effective there are eight important rules to follow: they should be active, given close to the time action is required, be specific and portable, fit in different situations, store many cues for long periods of time, easy to use, and not require a writing utensil.
Internal aids rely on mental processes such as mental imagery and rote rehearsal, and forming acronyms.
Explicit-internal memory strategies are more challenging for older adults as a result of the effortful processing required.
Spaced retrieval has proven to be successful, even in people with Alzheimer’s disease. This implicit-internal memory task is helpful in teaching those with dementia or serious cognitive impairment to remember new information by slowly increasing the time between retrieval attempts.
Memory drugs that affect neurotransmitters have not been found to product long-term improvements and changes. Unfortunately, the two medications receiving most attention are not extremely effective. Side effects causing memory problems are common and is important to note.
What is the difference between normal and abnormal memory aging? How is mental and physical health related to memory? How is nutrition related to memory?
To classify if memory aging is normal or abnormal, it is helpful to notice if the changes are disruptive to the person’s everyday life and ability to complete regular tasks. It is challenging to tell the difference between normal and abnormal memory aging and there is not a certain number of times that someone has forgot something when it becomes an issue.
Mental and physical health are important factors when observing memory capabilities. Several psychological disorders can cause serious memory decline in different types of memory. For example, damage to the hippocampus resulting from seizures in epilepsy result in their everyday life being severely interrupted. Another reason for memory impairment due to physical health is concussion.
A well-functioning memory has several healthy diet contributions. For example, flavonoids, dietary iron and vitamins such as B vitamins 6, 9, and 12 have been found to affect memory positively. Thus, when assessing one’s memory functioning, reviewing their diet is as important as reviewing the side effects of their medication.
