Chapter 3 - Physical changes Flashcards
List and describe the three biological theories of aging, including the three subtypes of cellular theories.
The three biological theories of aging are:
- rate-of-living theories,
- cellular theories, and
- programmed cell-death theories.
Rate-of-living theories assume that organisms live a specific amount of time relative to the amount of energy they have to expend throughout a lifetime. These theories consider the metabolic rates of organisms to infer length of life.
There are three subtypes of cellular theories. One notion focuses on the number of times cells can divide before dying, which would influence the lifespan of an organism.
A second cellular theory focuses on cross-linking proteins to produce molecules that link to make the human body stiffer. This cellular theory explains aging by examination of the stiffening of the heart and arteries.
A third cellular theory centers on free radicals as being responsible for aging. These molecules can be highly reactive and dangerous to the heart for example.
The programmed-cell-death theories assume that aging is programmed into our genetic code.
Summarize the changes in skin, hair, voice, and body build associated with aging. In each case, indicate why these changes occur.
Wrinkles are the result of multiple causes such as changes in the structure of the skin and exposure to pollution, which limits blood flow to the lips, and sunlight, which affects connective tissue.
Light-skinned people experience additional changes in their skin with age. The number of pigmented cells decrease, resulting in lighter skin. As well, age spots and moles become more numerous. Varicose veins may appear, and other blood vessels in the skin may appear as irregular red lines.
Thinning hair is experienced by both men and women, caused by hair follicle production sites being damaged. Graying hair results from the ceasing production of pigment.
Older adults voices tend to sound weaker due to age-related changes. The causes of these changes may be a result of changes in the respiratory system, the larynx, or poor health.
In older adults, a decrease in height and changes in weight are observable. As we grow older, compression of the spine occurs resulting in height loss. Noticeable weight gain can be a result of body metabolism changes and less time spent exercising. This weight gain between age 20 and mid 50s is usually met with weight loss in later life as muscle and bone loss occurs.
Describe the changes in muscles, balance, bones, and joints, and why they occur. List and define the major age-related diseases described in this section.
Muscle strength declines slowly until around age 70. Loss of muscle strength is up to 40% by age 80, and is experienced more so in the lower limbs than the upper limbs. The loss of lower limb muscle strength leads to increased problems in walking, balance problems, and an increase in the likeliness of falls.
As muscle mass declines, so does bone mass. As we get older, our bones become porous and hollow. This results from a variety of factors such as smoking, alcohol, and genetics. These changes lead to more frequent fractures and breaks.
Osteoporosis is a disease in which severe bone degeneration occurs - bones come to resemble honeycombs in structure. Shows increase porosity and loss of bone mass. Caused by multiple factors such as low calcium and not exercising to increase bone mass.
The protective cartilage in our joints start to deteriorate starting in the 20s. Osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis are two diseases that can result from this deterioration. Osteoarthritis results from the wearing away of cartilage between bones in joints. This type of arthritis occurs in people whose joints experience wear and tear, such as hard labourers. It is usually felt as pain in the hands, spine, hips, and knees. Rheumatoid arthritis is more destructive and is felt as aching in the fingers, wrists, and ankles. The synovial membrane becomes inflamed, causing swelling and pain.
Describe the psychological consequences of changes in physical appearance. In your opinion, which changes are the most impactful?
Ageism in society leads to middle-aged and older adults to feel pressured in different instances. For example, society applies a specific importance to looking young, leading many women to color their hair, get botox, and buy makeup to cover wrinkles. There tends to be an opposite effect for men as they are held to be more knowledgeable and distinguished while donning gray hair.
In addition to physical appearances, loss of muscle strength, coordination and endurance, can be felt as embarrassing and stressful. Simple tasks may prove to be more difficult which can be hard to accept.
In my opinion, movement limitations seem to be the most impactful changes. I am going to draw on personal experience to explain my reasoning. A few years ago, I was in a bad accident and unable to walk for 6 months. I felt so useless and frustrated having to ask others for help. An older adult losing movement ability is not likely to regain previous strengths, and psychologically this would be very difficult to accept.
Describe the changes in vision associated with aging, focusing on the structural changes in the eye and changes at the retinal level. What are the psychological consequences of vision changes? Provide examples.
changes in eye structures begin in the 40s and changes in the retina begin in the 50s.
1) This amount of light that passes through the eye decreases with age.
2) Adaptation ability also decreases, resulting in taking more time to adapt to light change. These structural changes generate other changes in the eye additionally -
3) the ability to see detail and acuity decline with age.
4) The lens becomes more yellow. In addition,
5) the lens causes presbyopia as the muscles around it become more flexible leading to the probability of needing glasses.
6) Depth focus also becomes more difficult.
7) Cataracts and glaucoma become somewhat common diseases as a result of these structural changes.
With age, the macula is at risk for deterioration as damage to receptors leads to difficulty in viewing details. Diabetes has an effect on vision as well. Aneurysms, hemorrhage, detachment of the retina, and fluid retention in the macula can occur as a result of diabetic retinopathy.
The psychological effects of visual changes can be extensive. Visual problems in older adults can lead to falls. The probability of falling may leave an older adult in fear of simple activities such as going down the steps to leave the house. This concern could lead to a lesser quality of life.
Describe the changes in hearing associated with aging. What are the psychological consequences of changes in hearing? Provide examples.
Hearing problems occur rapidly beginning in the 40s. Presbycusis is the lowered sensitivity to high pitched tones. It is the most commonly occurring age-related hearing problem and can result from four different changes in the inner ear.
Changes in hearing can play a large role in older adults psychologically. For example, loss of hearing can significantly affect daily tasks such as shopping. Moderate to severe loss of hearing is also associated with decreased cognitive functioning. Older adults hearing loss can result in experiencing depression, and irritation. Emotional/social maladjustment can negatively influence how older adults tolerate interpersonal communication.
Summarize the age-related changes in somesthesia and balance. What are the implications of these changes?
A decrease in the amount of temperature receptors, changes in peripheral nerves, and aging skin are all possible causes of an older adults lowered ability to perceive temperature, which is one important age-related change in somesthesia. These changes are more numerous in the limbs.
Difficulty in maintaining proper balance has been found to be a result of age-related changes in the white matter found in the frontal and occipital cortexes. As we age, vertigo and dizziness become common experience, and can result from changes in the vestibular system to from taking certain meds. As a result of all of these changes, with age falling becomes more likely.
As the textbook states, the ability to maintain proper body temperature can literally be a matter of life or death. For example, if an elderly person is outside in winter for an extended period of time, hypothermia or frostbite are big possibilities, without even a realization that they may be occurring.
Environments with external temperature regulation such as heating and cooling are important for this age group. As well, loss of balance in older adults should be met with the removal of loose rugs, and avoidance of slippery floors when possible. Sufficient light with reduced glaze can also make a difference in preventing falls. Exercising and strengthening muscles, noting the side effects of medication such as dizziness or drowsiness, and correcting visual impairments are important precautions that should be taken in addition.
Summarize the age-related changes in taste and smell. What are the implications of these changes?
The number of taste cells remains relatively without much change across a lifespan – though there are taste abilities that do decline, such as the ability to detect different tastes. It can only be speculated that changes in older adults enjoyment of food is caused by changes in smell, disease, and psychosocial issues as there is not a ton of research on this.
The ability to smell declines as well. Younger people are more able to identify particular odors compared to older adults. The ability to detect odours declines beginning in the 60s, though varies with individuals and different odours.
Not being fully capable of smell can be dangerous. Additionally, smell plays a factor in social life. If one cannot smell if they are clean, others may want to spend less time around them. Lastly, if we cannot detect odours, nostalgia may be lost if say, we can no longer smell the burning fireplace at the cabin you’ve spent many winters.
Describe the prevalence of cardiovascular disease. Define the three types of cardiovascular disease. What is atherosclerosis, and how is it related to cerebrovascular accidents? How is blood pressure related to cerebrovascular accidents?
By 2030, it is estimated that over 40% of Americans will have some type of cardiovascular disease. As people become older adults, cardiovascular disease becomes more prevalent. Additionally, rates of diabetes are increasing. What is interesting is that cardiovascular disease has actually been on a decline in the 1980s among American men.
The textbook discusses three important cardiovascular diseases in detail: congestive heart failure, angina pectoris, and myocardial infarction.
Congestive heart failure is when a severe decline occurs in cardiac output and the heart’s ability to contract.
Angina pectoris is the chest pain felt when the delivery of oxygen to the heart muscle is inadequate.
Myocardial infarction (MI) is the medical term for heart attack. A heart attack occurs when the heart is no longer receiving blood supply, or it is reduced to an amount that is not enough to function.
Atherosclerosis is a disease caused by fat deposits on and calcification of arterial walls. Too much fat deposit results from poor lifestyle choices and ends up obstructing blood flow in the arteries. Atherosclerosis is important to understand when discussing cerebrovascular accidents, or stroke. When serious fat build up occurs in the blood vessels that supply the brain, neurons may become malnourished as a result of obstructed blood flow and can end up dying or unable to properly function. Thus, blood flow can become completely cut off, resulting in a cerebrovascular accident.
As we age, our blood pressure increases with age-related structural changes. Weakened arteries as a result of hypertension put one at higher risk for stroke to occur. Blood clots stopping blood flow in an artery or a blood vessel breaking are causes for cerebrovascular accidents.
Describe the age-related changes in respiration and the major types of respiratory disease.
We may notice breathing becomes more difficult as our rib cage and airways become stiffer as we get older. Our maximum inhale declines by about 40% by the time we reach 85 years old. The rate that we exchange oxygen for carbon dioxide drops considerably. As a result of pollutants over time, the color of our lungs changes to grey.
The textbook discusses chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in two common types: emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
Emphysema is known to be the most serious type of COPD. It is recognized by damage to the membrane surrounding the air sacs, resulting in holes in the lungs to greatly reduce air exchange ability. Emphysema can result in breathing becoming exhaustive after minimal movement. People with this type of respiratory disease can become confused and disoriented due to having severely low oxygenated blood.
Chronic bronchitis is more common among those that are older and have been exposed to air pollutants. A change of work environment can be beneficial.
Describe the reproductive changes associated with aging for both women and men. What are the psychological consequences of these changes?
The period of time during which women pass from being able to bear children to not being able to bear children is known as the climacteric.
With the disappearance of monthly periods comes changes in hormone levels, sexual functioning, and reproductive organs. As well, the decreases in estrogen and progesterone are accompanied by multiple other symptoms including headaches, hot flashes, difficulty sleeping, unpredictable mood changes, night sweats, an increase in urinary infections, an increase in body fat in the waist area, difficulty concentrating, painful sex, a decreased interest in sex, and vaginal dryness.
In addition, weight gain, memory loss, cardiovascular disease, stress urinary incontinence, and the increased risk of osteoporosis are all related to the estrogen decline experienced by women after menopause.
Physical changes to genital organs also occur after menopause and can cause pain during sex and result in longer time and more stimulation needed to reach orgasm. Age changes in genital organs include shrinking and thinning of vaginal walls and decreased and delayed vaginal lubrication.
Men differ from women in the fact they do not lose reproductive ability. Though, they do experience a decline in sperm count and a gradual decline in testosterone levels. The prostate gland increases in size and becomes stiffer, leading to possibly obstruct the urinary tract and an increase in prostate cancer risk. Men also experience changes physiologically in sexual performance. Older men experience less of a demand to ejaculate, a need for more time and stimulation to reach erection and orgasm, and a longer recovery period where erection is impossible. Loss or erection and inability to achieve orgasm are also common.
These changes are already difficult to experience as you realize your reproductive years as a woman are coming to an end. What makes this time psychologically more difficult is society’s notion that older people having sex is not okay. This way of thinking is an example of ageism discrimination – just because someone is older does not mean that their physical urges diminish. Expressing sexuality is a natural, biological trait of humans.
Summarize the changes in the autonomic nervous system associated with aging. What are the psychological consequences of these changes?
As we age, body temperature control and sleep are two changes that occur in our autonomic nervous systems.
The ability to regulate body temperature decreases with age. Raising core body temperature after a temperature drop occurs happens at a slower rate than in a younger person. On the other end of the thermometer, sweat production decreases with age thus older adults have difficulty responding to high temperatures.
Sleeping also permits some difficulty as we grow older. Falling asleep becomes problematic, awakenings throughout the night become more frequent, and not being able to sleep as long are issues that can be faced by older adults. These difficulties lead to hardships felt the day after sleep such as feeling fatigued and a lack of motivation.
Psychological consequences of decreased body temperature control and sleep points to issues that can be managed within in the individual. For example, many of the body’s systems are involved in temperature regulation. Making sure these systems are operating at their highest levels can help reduce discomfort. For example, the musculoskeletal system is involved in temperature regulation. Physical exercise can train this system to function more effectively for the individual. As well, environments with external temperature regulation such as heating and cooling are important for this age group. Putting effort into setting a healthy sleep schedule is important, too. Having a calming sleep environment or whatever may be needed to improve sleep is important as the amount of rest one gets truly affects their functioning.
