Chapter 6 Flashcards
What is the definition of perception?
Perception is the process by which individuals connect to their environment. It is a complex physical & psychological process of screening, selecting, and interpreting stimuli so that they have meaning to the individual. A “sense-making” process so that people can respond appropriately to the interpreted environment
What are the 4 major perceptual errors?
- Stereotyping
- Halo Effects
- Selective Perception
- Projection
What are stereotypes?
Stereotypes are beliefs that all members of a specific group share similar traits and are prone to behave in the same way
Why do we rely on stereotypes?
stereotypes minimize the cognitive work needed in thinking about others, it is a categorization of stimuli absolutely essential for making sense of the world; can lead to premature judgements about people
What is a halo effect?
A halo effect is the tendency for overall impressions of others to affect objective evaluation of their specific traits;
positive halo- good impressions causes us to view what the person does in favorable terms, even if we have no knowledge about the specific behaviors (results in consistently high ratings)
negative halo- results in consistently low ratings
What is selective perception?
Selective perception is where the perceiver singles out information that supports a prior belief but filters out contrary information; perpetuates stereotypes or halo effects
What is projection?
Projection arises out of a need to protect one’s own self-concept–ppl assign to others the characteristics or feelings that they perceive themselves; in negotiation, the tendency to project may lead to an over estimating how much the other party knew about his or her preferences ie. Yeonji’s ex. of her at the car dealer
In cognition, what is framing?
- represents the subjective mechanism through which ppl evaluate and make sense out of situations
- leads ppl to pursue or avoid subsequent actions
- focus, shape, and organize the world around us
- make sense of complex failures
- define a person, event, or process
- import meaning and significance
What are the types of frames?
- Substantive- what it’s about
- Outcome- distributive outcome
- Aspiration- integrative outcome
- Process- how its being handled
- Identity- who they are & what group they are part of
- Characterization
What three frames do parties in conflict use?
Interests- ppl talk about their “positions” but often what is at stake is their underlying interests
Rights- ppl may be concerned about who is “right”- that is, who has legitimacy, who is correct, and what is fair
Power- ppl may wish to resolve a conflict on the basis of who is stronger
What is a key piece of advice about problem solving for negotiators?
conversations change and transform frames in ways negotiators may not be able to predict but may be able to control
What do we need to know about cognitive biases in negotiation
negotiators have a tendency to make systematic errors when they process information, these errors, collectively labeled cognitive biases, tend to impede negotiator performance
What are 12 cognitive biases (read from textbook)
- irrational escalation of commitment: tendency for an individual to make decisions that persist in pursuing a failing course of action
- mythical fixed-pie beliefs: tendency to see negotiation as a zero-sum or win-lose situation with parties’ interests diametrically opposed
- anchoring and adjustment: being overly influenced by a standard or reference point (an anchor) and failing to make adjustments
- issue framing and risk: tendency to unduly influenced by the positive or negative frame through which risks are perceived
- availability of information: tendency to settle quickly on an outcome and then feel discomfort about a negotiation
- the winner’s curse: tendency to settle quickly on an outcome and then feel discomfort about a negotiation win that comes too easily
- overconfidence: tendency to believe that one’s ability to be correct or accurate is greater than is actually the case
- the law of small numbers: tendency to draw inappropriate conclusions based on small data samples or a small number of examples
- self-serving habits: tendency to make attributions about causes of behavior that are self-serving (take personal credit for successes, blame aspects of the situation for negative results).
- endowment effect: tendency to inflate the value of something you own or have in your possession
- ignoring other’s conditions: failure to consider the other party’s thoughts and perceptions, inhibiting an accurate understanding of their interest and goals
- reactive devaluation: placing less value on concessions made by other simply because the other party offered them
What is the best advice negotiators can follow in managing misperceptions and cognitive biases in negotiation?
the best advice negotiators can follow is:
- be aware of the negative aspects of these biases
- discuss them in a structured manner w/in the team and w/counter parts
