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Lifespan > Chapter 6 > Flashcards

Chapter 6 Flashcards

1
Q

Body and Growth Change

A
  • Growth averages 2-3 inches per year
  • Weight gain averages 5-7 lbs. each year
  • Muscle mass and strength gradually increase; baby fat decreases
  • Ossification (hardening) of bones
  • Boys have a greater number of muscle cells and are typically stronger than girls
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2
Q

Motor development improves greatly over the preschool years

A
  • 6 years: most children can ride a bike, skate, climb trees, and jump rope with ease
  • Boys usually outperform girls on gross motor skills
  • 8-9 years: most children have mastered the fine motor coordination needed to write, draw, and use tools.
  • Increased myelination of the central nervous system
  • Girls usually outperform boys on fine motor skills
  • Eye hand coordination also improves
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3
Q

Brain Change

A
  • Brain volume stabilizes
  • Improvements in coordination
  • Due to the maturing corpus callosum (motor learning)
  • Significant changes in structures and regions occur, especially in the prefrontal cortex
  • Improved attention, concentration, and planning abilities
  • Activation of some brain areas increase while others decrease
  • Shift from larger areas to smaller, more focal areas
  • Due to synaptic pruning
  • Affects flexibility and control in attention, reducing interfering thoughts, inhibiting motor actions, and switching between competing choices
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4
Q

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

A
  • Cluster of symptoms problematic for school: poor attentional control, restlessness or hyperactivity, impulsivity
  • 5–10% of school-age children diagnosed
  • Researchers beginning to identify neurological differences that align with behavioral differences
  • Longitudinal research indicates the “difference” is often a delay; about half of ADHD cases remit
  • There is a significant amount of normal variation, uneven brain development in middle childhood
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5
Q

Concrete operational stage

A
  • Piaget
  • Ages 6-12 (originally proposed by Piaget as 7-11)
  • Children can perform concrete operations & reason logically as long as reasoning can only be applied to specific, concrete examples
  • Ability to coordinate more than 1 dimension, classify things into different sets, & consider their interrelationships; recognize reversible relationships
  • Universally, adults seem to recognize that somewhere between ages 5-7 children become more sensible, reliable problem solvers
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6
Q

Egocentrism

A

*a failure to recognize one’s own subjectivity. One fails to see things realistically because one is, in a sense, trapped on one’s own perspective

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7
Q

Reversible relationship

A
  • Logic is dependent on being able to see and understand the relationship between length and width changes- that one perfectly compensates for th other
  • Compensatory relationship
  • One change reverses the effects of the other change
  • Pieget-> important for solving many kinds of logical problems, allowing children a deeper understanding of the world around them
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8
Q

Formal operational thought

A
  • Although elementary-school-aged children can think scientifically sometimes, identifying simple theories and checking them against evidence, they make a muddle of it if they already believe a certain theory
  • logical thought about abstract contents
  • Move into adolescence
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9
Q

Domain of knowledge

A

*Amount of prior experience a child has had with the specific domain of knowledge: a particular subject matter or content area that he is thinking about

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10
Q

The Information Processing Approach

A
  • No qualitative, stage-like changes characterize a child’s thinking or processing
  • Information Processing researchers focus heavily on what children do with information of particular kinds:
  • What they pay most attention to
  • How they encode it
  • What and how much information they store
  • What other information they link it with
  • How they retrieve it
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11
Q

Neo-Piagetians

A
  • argue that Piaget got some things right, but that theory needs considerable revision
  • More emphasis on attention, memory, and strategy used and how, & how quickly they process information
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12
Q

Memory

A

long-term memory increases with age during middle & late childhood; aided by knowledge & increased use of strategies

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13
Q

Sensory memory

A

refers to a brief retention of sensory experience

*Capacity does not seem to change much with age

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14
Q

Long-term memory

A

an almost unlimited mental store of knowledge

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15
Q

Working memory

A

limited capacity, material is lost from working memory in 15-30 seconds unless we engage in rehearsal

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16
Q

Rehearsal

A

we actually keep working with it, making an effort to pay attention

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17
Q

Retrieval

A
  • remembering, getting information about of storage so we can use it
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18
Q

Recognition

A
  • When the information to be remembered is immediately available to your sense
  • Seems to be present from birth
  • Children have great visual-spatial recognition skills
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19
Q

Recall

A

*“to-be-remembered” information is not present, and somehow it must be drawn out of long-term memory to represent it to (e.g., answering a question on an exam)

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20
Q

Declarative knowledge

A

knowledge about facts & events

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21
Q

Semantic

A

factual information (“the earth is round”), rules (“red lights mean stop”), and concepts (“an elephant is a large, gray animal”)

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22
Q

Episodic

A
  • knowledge of events experienced (e.g., recalling a doctor’s visit or supervisor asking someone to recall a counseling session)
  • Organized around space & time – what happened in order, where and when; becomes as “script”
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23
Q

Nondeclarative knowledge/Procedural knowledge

A

knowledge that cannot adequately put into words & may not even enter our awareness

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24
Q

Script

A

Form a schematic representaiton of the typical features of such an event and the order in which they happen

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25
Q

Digit Span Tests

A
  • provide demonstration of change in working memory capacity
  • 2 years: produce a two-digit string
  • 7 years: product 5-digit string
  • Adults: average is 7 digit string
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26
Q

Working Memory- Processing Speed

A
  • Children making simple responses (e.g., pushing a button) to a stimulus, increases from early to middle childhood and continues to improve until about age 15
  • Processing speed can increase with physical maturation
  • As children get older they can do more with more information at one time
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27
Q

Increased knowledge base with development

A
  • As children get older, their knowledge about many things increases
  • But, prior knowledge can lead to false memories
  • Signorella & Liben (1984), strong stereotyped beliefs are more likely than children with less stereotyped beliefs to misremember
  • Experts have acquired extensive knowledge about a particular content area
  • Influences what they notice & how they organize, represent, and interpret information which…
  • -Affects ability to remember, reason, & solve problems
  • Older children usually have more expertise about a subject than younger children do
  • Another advantage of a rich web of knowledge is that it allows chunking of information together in a meaningful unit
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28
Q

Improvements in Development- Logical Thinking Skills

A

Older children may have a better understanding of their experiences, which helps them to remember more about the experience later

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29
Q

Improvements in Development- Language Skills

A

Improvements in narrative skill (the ability to tell a coherent story)

30
Q

Memory strategies

A
  • strategies are “potentially conscious activities a person may voluntarily carry out” to remember something
  • Retrieval following some plan
  • Younger children use less selective attention to help them with their memory, but can show some “pre-strategic” skills
31
Q

Organizational strategy

A

sorting items on some meaningful basis

32
Q

Elaboration

A

finding or creating some kind of meaningful link between items

33
Q

Production deficiency

A

failing to use a strategy in situations when its helpful

34
Q

Utilization deficiency

A

use a strategy, but does not boost memory

35
Q

Metacognition

A

cognition about cognition

  • thinking about and awareness of mental processes
  • Includes knowledge about strategies
  • Routine use of strategies
  • Effective planning to solve problems
  • Knowing when & where to use strategies
36
Q

Metamemory

A
  • knowledge about memory

- Children have some knowledge of metamemory by 5-6 yrs

37
Q

Self-instruction/self-monitoring

A
  • clinical practices in which the goal is to effect some behavior change by attending to regulating & sometimes changing cognitions
  • Teaching children to keep track of what they have learned seems to be an important element in teaching

them how to learn

38
Q

Counting all strategy

A

informal arithmetic skills such as adding and subtracting small numbers by using counting strategies

39
Q

Counting on

A

starting with the first number and ocunting four more numbers from there

40
Q

Retrieval Strategy

A

pulling the answer automatically from memory after being repeatedly exposed

41
Q

Critical Thinking

A

*thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating evidence -Brooks & Brooks (2001): few schools really teach critical thinking; encourage students to re-think old ideas or expand their thinking (new ideas)

42
Q

Creative Thinking

A

the ability to think in novel & unusual ways, & to come up with unique solutions to problems

43
Q

Convergent thinking

A

produces one correct answer

44
Q

Divergent thinking

A

produces many different answers to the same question

45
Q

Strategies for Fostering Creativity

A
  • Encourage brainstorming
  • Provide environments that stimulate creativity
  • Don’t overcontrol students
  • Encourage internal motivation
  • Build children’s confidence
  • Guide children to be persistent and delay gratification
  • Encourage children to take intellectual risks
  • Introduce children to creative people
46
Q

Scientific Thinking

A
  • Children tend to:
  • Ask fundamental questions about reality & seeks answers to problems that may seem trivial
  • Place a great deal of emphasis on causal mechanisms
  • Be more influenced by chance events than by overall patterns
  • Maintain old theories regardless of evidence
  • Tools of scientific thought are not routinely taught in schools
47
Q

Children’s Eyewitness Testimony

A

*Witness’s memory for observed events may
be incomplete, distorted or wrong at any age
– Preschoolers have greater difficulty with reality
monitoring, distinguishing fantasy from reality
– School-aged children generally less suggestible,
but not immune to influence

48
Q

Guidelines for better eyewitness interviews

A 
Avoid leading questions
– Keep repetition to a minimum
– Use emotionally neutral tone
– Avoid stereotype induction
– Do not use inducements
49
Q

Intelligence

A

the ability to problem solve and learn from and adapt to

life’s everyday experiences

50
Q

Individual Differences

A

stable, consistent ways in which people are

different from each other

51
Q

Intelligence Tests

A

*Binet Tests: designed to identify children with difficulty learning in school
¢ Mental age (MA): an individual’s level of mental development relative to others
¢ Intelligence quotient (IQ): a person’s mental age divided by chronological age,
multiplied by 100
*Stanford-Binet Tests: revised version of the Binet test
¢ Scores approximate a normal distribution—a bell-shaped curve
*Wechsler Scales: give scores on several composite indices
¢ Three versions for different age groups: 2-6 to 7-3, & 6 to 16 & 17 to adult

52
Q

Three categories of effective educational

factors

A

-Quantity, instruction and practice
– Stimulation, engaging environments and content
– Valuing, for learning and the learner

53
Q

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

A

*intelligence
comes in three forms:
¢ Analytical intelligence: ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare,
and contrast
¢ Creative intelligence: ability to create, design, invent, originate, and
imagine
¢ Practical intelligence: ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas
into practice

54
Q

Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind

A

¢ Verbal: ability to think in words and use language to express
meaning
¢ Mathematical: ability to carry out mathematical operations
¢ Spatial: ability to think three-dimensionally
¢ Bodily-Kinesthetic: ability to manipulate objects and be
physically adept
¢ Musical: sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone
¢ Interpersonal: ability to understand and interact effectively
with others
¢ Intrapersonal: ability to understand oneself
¢ Naturalist: ability to observe patterns in nature and understand
natural and human-made systems (farming, ecology)

55
Q

Metalinguistic Awareness

A

*knowledge about language

¢ Improves significantly during elementary school years

56
Q

Two approaches to teaching reading

A
  • Whole-language approach

* Phonics approach

57
Q

Whole-language approach

A

*reading instruction should parallel
children’s natural language learning
¢ Recognize whole words; use context to guess at meaning
¢ Reading is connected with listening and writing skills

58
Q

Phonics approach

A

*reading instruction should teach basic rules for
translating written symbols into sounds
¢ Research suggests that instruction in phonics should be
emphasized, although both methods can be beneficial

59
Q

Cooperative learning environments

A

*a classroom, or
other organization that encourages children to work in
pairs or in groups to solve academic problems and to
improve their understanding of concepts or skills

60
Q

Peer collaborations

A

*most effective when the decision
making is shared
-Children need support in learning to collaborate effectively
-Difficulty in coordinating attention, communicating
effectively, and behaving contingently (adjust their bx to be
flexible to the needs of their partner)

61
Q

Social cognition

A

*a person’s mental processing (thoughts,
beliefs, etc.) of information about other people and their
reasoning about social relationships
-By the 5th birthday most children realize that others often have
different thoughts and beliefs from their own

62
Q

Perspective Taking and Social Relationships

A

¢ Social relationships are necessary for the child to gain
experience in learning about others’ points of view
-They contribute to the child’s sense of security & connectedness
-Foster the development of the self concept
¢ Perspective taking: consideration of the viewpoints of
others
-Develops gradually as the child matures
¢ The child in school environments is “forced” to clarify his
thoughts & adopt better communication skills in order to
be accepted
-Conflicts in social relationships are viewed as essential to a
developing awareness of perspectives other than one’s own

63
Q

Perspective Taking and Friendships

A

¢ Sullivan (1953): children need interpersonal contact in
order to reduce egocentrism and promote altruism
-Age 8, children’s needs for increased interpersonal intimacy
are met though the establishment of an intense, focused
interest in same-sex age-mates
-Seeing oneself self reflected back from the friendship
promotes validation of one’s thoughts, feelings, & beliefs as
well as a more realistic appraisal

64
Q

Selman’s Stages of

Friendship Development, Perspective Taking

A

– Stage 0 (3–6 yrs): Undifferentiated/Egocentric
– Stage 1 (5–9 yrs): Differentiated/Subjective
– Stage 2 (8–12 yrs): Reciprocal/Self-Reflective
– Stage 3 (10–15 yrs): Mutual/Third-Person
– Stage 4 (Late teen+): Intimate/In-Depth/
Societal
¢ Increasing ability to balance needs for
intimacy and autonomy while preserving
friendship

65
Q

Psychosocial development

A

the internal psychological processes of interpersonal understanding, skills, and values that comprise an individual’s capacity for interpersonal relationships

66
Q

Friendship understanding

A

a child’s changing knowledge of what friendship implies

67
Q

Friendship skills

A

behavioral skills and conflict resolution that maintain and enhance friendships

68
Q

Friendship valuing

A

emotional attachment or investment that the child makes in a friendship

69
Q

Interpersonal orientation

A
  • the way the child characteristically interacts on a social level
  • Linking the child’s psychosocial competencies to his interpersonal performance
70
Q

Other-transforming style

A
  • Characteristically tries to dominate or coerce a friend into meeting his needs
  • Change or transform the other and can be bulling, aggressive, or manipulative.
71
Q

Self-transforming

A
  • Gives in to reduce the level of tension

* Changes his own behaviors or feelings to conform

Lifespan (11 decks)

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