Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Lifespan > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Nature-Nurture

A
  • Both heredity and environment shape human development, and interact in intricate ways
  • Genes (nature) do nothing without environmental input (nurture)
  • Environmental effects (nurture) are shaped by genetic constraints (nature)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Epigenesis

A

*Process by which outside factors influence how hereditary material functions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Coaction

A

*Reciprocal influence of hereditary and environmental facotrs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Epigenetic model

A

Assumes that development is the result of interacting genetic and environmental elements, that these interactions are complex, and that they occur at multiple levels of functioning

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Sperm

A

23 chromosomes

*Male

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Ovum

A

woman’s egg

*23 chromosomes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Cytoplasm

A
  • the ovum’s nucleus is surrounded by a great deal of cellular material
  • Loaded with a vast array of chemicals
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Zygote

A
  • 23 pairs of chromosomes
  • 46 chromosomes
  • 22 matched pairs (autosomes)
  • 1 additional pair (sex chromosome, XX/XY)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Autosomes

A
  • 22 of these pairs are matched

* The two chromosomes look and function alike

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Sex chromosomes

A
  • 23rd pair of chromosomes
  • Sex determination
  • Female zygotes: X chromosomes
  • Male zygotes: X chromosome from their mothers; Y chromosome from their fathers
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Karyotypes

A
  • one from a male and one from a female
  • Displays the actual chromosomes from human body cells
  • Chromosomes for a karyotype can be taken from cells anywhere in a person’s body
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Mitosis

A
  • cell division process
  • Produces two new cells each of which contains a duplicate set of chromosomes
  • The new cells become eight cells, and so on.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Implantation

A
  • attaching itself to the uterine lining
  • Makes further growth and development possible
  • Is now embryo
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Epigenome

A

full set of factors, from the cell to the outside world, that controls the expression of hereditary material

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

A
  • a remarkable organic chemical that made up the chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell
  • Genes code for production of specific proteins
  • The DNA code is a long sequence of molecules of four bases: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine (A,C,G,T)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Histones

A

long strands of DNA are combined with these proteins Wrapped and compacted to make up the chromosomes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Genes

A
  • functional units or sections of DNA
  • “Coded” sections of DNA
  • For each member of a pair of chromosomes, the number and location of genes are the same.
  • Come in matched pairs, half from the mother (ovum) and half from the father (sperm)
  • Provide a code that a cell is capable of “reading” and using to help construct a protein: a complex organic chemical, made up of smaller molecules called amino acids
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Transcription

A
  • intertwined strands of DNA separate, and one of the strands acts as a template for the synthesis of a new, single strand of messenger ribonucleic acid or mRNA
  • The sequence of bases (the “code”) is replicated in the mRNA
  • Different sections of a gene’s code can be combined in different ways in the mRNA
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Translation

A
  • the cell “reads” the mRNA code and produces a protoprotein, a substance that with a little tweaking can become protein.
  • The cell can produce several protein variations from the same protoprotein
  • Different cell climates (combinations of chemical) can induce different protein outcomes.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Gene expression

A
  • he entire transcription through translation process
  • Whether or not genes will be expressed, and how often, is influenced by the environment of the cell.
  • Most genes do not function full-time.
  • Genes may be turned “on” in some cells and not in others
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Noncoded genes

A

how and when a gene’s code will be transcribed is partially regulated by sections of intergenic DNA

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Gene regulation

A

either initiate or prevent the gene’s transcription

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Transcription factors

A
  • bind with the regulatory portions of the DNA, which initiates the uncoiling of the strands of DNA at the gene location
  • Allows mRNA production to begin
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Receptor

A

transcription factor binds to one or only a few receptors -> bind to the regulatory DNA

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Methylation

A
  • one epigenetic change that can affect the expression of a gene
  • The addition of a methyl group (an organic molecule) to DNA, either to the coded gene or to regulatory DNA.
  • Makes transcription of the gene more difficult
  • May even turn off a gene for good
  • Persistent
  • Is passed on when chromosomes duplicate during cell division
  • tighter binding and reduces gene transcription
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Demethylation

A
  • methyl groups may detech from DNA
  • Gene transcription is likely to increase
  • looser binding and more transcription
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Acetylation

A

loosens the binding, typically increasing gene transcription

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Deacetylation

A

tighten the bonds again

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Cross-fostering studies

A

they gave the offspring of high LG mothers to low LG mothers to rear, and they gave the offspring of low LG mothers to high LG mothers to rear.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Genotype

A

the full complement of an organism’s genes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Phenotypes

A

physical and behavioral traits

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Dizygotic twins/fraternal twins

A

are conceived when a mother releases two ova in the same menstrual cycle, and each ovum is fertilized by a separate sperm

  • Develop from two separate zygotes
  • Share about 50% of their genes on average
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Concordance

A

similarity between members of a pair of twins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Disconcordance

A

differences between members of a pair of twins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Alleles

A
  • slightly different varieties of genes at the same location or locus on the chromosome
  • Genotypes
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Dominant-recessive relationship

A

two alleles of the same gene with only the first affecting the phenotype

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Carrier

A
  • of a recessive gene
  • “Surface” in the phenotype of one of his offspring
  • If a child receives two recessive allels, one from each parent, the child will have the recessive trait.
38
Q

Codominance

A
  • Two different alleles producing a blended or additive outcome
  • Type AB blood
39
Q

Polygenic

A
  • make the prediction of traits from one generation to another very difficult
  • Any one pair of gene alleles has only a modest influence on phenotypic outcomes
40
Q

Genomic imprinting

A

*a special example of how methylation can change outcomes

41
Q

Typical Development

A
  • Prenatal development is orderly and continuous progress from a single fertilized cell to a highly differentiated organism
  • Period of the zygote: about 2 weeks
  • From fertilization to implantation
  • Period of the embryo: from about the 3rd to 8th week
  • When most of the body’s organ systems and structures are forming
  • Period of the fetus: from the 9th week until birth
  • When the reproductive system forms, gains in body weight occur, and the brain and nervous system continue to develop dramatically.
42
Q

Hereditary diseases

A

Can occur as a function of defective genes, wrong number of chromosomes

43
Q

Sickle-cell anemia

A
  • the red blood cells are abnormally shaped, more like a half moon than the usual, round shape.
  • The abnormal cells are not as efficient as normal cells in carrying oxygen to the tissues.
  • Breathing problems
  • Organ malfunctions and without treatment, to early death
  • A recessive gene allele causes the malformed blood cells
44
Q

Teratogens

A

Environmental agents that harm the fetus

-Timing and dosage of exposure critical

45
Q

Inadequate nutrition

A

Lacking adequate protein, vitamins, and minerals for development

46
Q

Genetic counselors

A

*help screen candidates for such testing, as well as provide information and support to prospective parents, helping them to understand genetic processes and cope with the choices that confront them-choices about testing, childbearing, and parenting

47
Q

Mutation

A
  • when these alleles occur in some future generation
  • A change in the chemical structure of an existing gene
  • Occur spontaneously
  • Due to environmental influences
48
Q

Progeria

A
  • fatal disorder that causes rapid aging, so that by late childhood its victims are dying of “old age”
  • Is caused by a genetic mutation during the embryonic period of prenatal development
49
Q

Hungtinton’s disease

A
  • the nervous system to deteriorate, usually beginning between 30 and 40 years of age.
  • Uncontrolled movements and increasingly disordered psychological functioning- ending in death
  • Test
  • No cure
50
Q

Down syndrome (trisomy 21)

A

*An extra copy of chromosome number 21
Mental retardation
*The increased risk with parental age holds only for mothers

51
Q

Kwashiorkor

A
  • children who suffer severe protein and calorie shortages at any age.
  • Stunted growth
  • A protuberant belly
  • Extreme apathy
  • Therapeutic dies can eliminate the apathy of kwashiorkor, but cognitive impairments are likely to persist.
52
Q

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

A
  • babies who are exposed to alcohol prenatally
  • Virtue of their unique facial configuration
  • Growth retardation, either pre-or postnatally, both in weight and length
  • Many organ systems can be affected
  • The central nervous system
  • Mental retardation and behavior problems
53
Q

Fetal alcohol effects (FAE)

A
  • children exposed to smaller amounts of alcohol prenatally
  • Significant learning impairments
  • The absence of physical symptoms or structural malformations
  • Cognitive limitations
54
Q

Neurulation

A
  • cells from the embryo’s upper surface began to form a sheet that rearranged itself by turning inward and curling into a neural tube
  • at 2 weeks, around 25th day the first neurons form
55
Q

Formation of major structures of the brain

A
  • Hindbrain: medulla, pons, cerebellum, and reticular formation, regulate autonomic functions
  • Midbrain: superior colliculi, inferior colliculi, and substantia nigra, involved in vision, hearing, and consciousness
  • Forebrain: cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, and limbic system, handles neural communication
56
Q

Neuron

A
  • cells from the interior surface of the neural tube
  • Nerve cells
  • Become the building blocks of your brain
  • Cell body, containing the nucleus
  • Dendrites: short extensions, receive impulses
  • Axon: long extension, transmits impulses
  • Axon terminals: stores and releases neurotransmitters to transmit signals across the synapse, the gap between neurons
57
Q

Glial cells

A
  • your neurons began to migrate outward from their place of birth rather like filaments extending from the neural tube to various sites in your still incomplete brain
  • Supporting cells
  • Stretching from the inside of the neural tube to its outside, provided a type of scaffolding for your neurons, guiding them as they ventured out on their way to their final destinations
58
Q

Cerebral cortex of forebrain

A

developed last migrated the farthest

59
Q

Nucleus

A

a cluster of cells creating a structure, rather than to the kind of nucleus that is found in a single cell

60
Q

Lateralization

A
  • hemispheric specialization
  • The left hemisphere controls functioning of the right side of the body and vice versa- language functions,
  • Visual-spatial skills- right
61
Q

Occipital lobe

A
  • located at the back of the head

* Handles visual information

62
Q

Temporal lobe

A

*the sides of each hemisphere- auditory processing

63
Q

Parietal lobe

A

*top of each hemisphere, behind a fissure called the central sulcus- processing of somatosensory information

64
Q

Frontal lobe

A

situated at the top front part of each hemisphere, controls voluntary muscles movements and higher level cognitive functions

65
Q

Prefrontal cortex (PFC)

A

part of the frontal lobe that occupies the front or anterior portion; sustained attention, working memory, planning, decision regulation- moderate an overactive amygdala as well as the activity of the HPA axis

66
Q

Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)

A

in the middle of the brain above the corpus callosum; mediates cognition and affect

67
Q

Myelination

A

if the message is to fire, the speed of the resulting electrical impulse is increased when glial cells wrap themselves around the axon, thus facilitating conduction

68
Q

White matter

A
  • bundles of myelinated axons

* The peak of white matter volume occurs around age 50

69
Q

Grey matter

A

bundles: bundles of cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated neurons

70
Q

Circuits

A

they are joined via their synaptic connections into groups

71
Q

Projection neurons

A

have axons that extend far away from the cell body

72
Q

Interneurons

A

branch out closer to the local area

73
Q

Synapses

A

new connections among neurons

74
Q

Synaptogenesis

A

the generation of synapses, took place after birth, when much more sensory stiulation became available

75
Q

Neural pruning

A

many neurons would die off and many synaptic connections would be selectively discarded.

76
Q

Synaptic overproduction

A

occurs when it is highly likely that nature will provide the appropriate experience to structure the development of a particular system

77
Q

Experience-expectant

A

it is experience that is part of the evolutionary history of the organism and that occurs reliably in most situations

78
Q

Experience-dependent

A

quality of the synaptic growth “depends” upon variations in environmental opportunities

79
Q

Homeostasis

A
  • adaptation to stress
  • The body’s capacity to regulate internal physiology primarily through systems that exert reciprocal control
  • Maintaine internal balance
  • Reflexive, physiological feedback loops, primarily controlled by lower-level brain areas, that balance internal systems around a fixed set-point
80
Q

Stress

A

a nonspecific response to any demand

81
Q

General adptation syndrome (GAS)

A
  • a generic way that organisms responded to threats to their well-being
  • Alarm phase, when a threat is first recognized and when the body prepares for flight or fight
  • Resistance phase, the body’s stress response is active as it continues to resist the effects of the stressor
  • Exhaustion, if the struggle persists to the point of complete resource depletion
  • Depression, illness, or even death can occur after severe, prolonged stress
82
Q

Allostasis

A
  • central nervous system (CNS) control over multiple interacting regulatory processes maintains “balance through adaptation”
  • Allows for adjustments to be made within a range of possibilities across a variety of systems to suit the circumstances.
  • Instead of retuning to a fixed set point, the best balance for each specific challenge is found- allostatic accommodation
  • Nervous, immune, and endocrine systems are the primarily interconnected networks that mediate this adaptive response
83
Q

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

A
  • activating (amygdala) or inhibiting (hippocampus)
  • Major stress managing apparatus
  • Hypothalamus communicates the danger message to pituitary gland by chemical messenger corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) -> pituitary gland release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) into the bloodstream
  • Both CRF and ACTH production: permanently affected by early trauma
  • Abormalities- later depression
  • The early experience of stress - lifetime disadvantage, rendering the individual sensitized to stress by means of altered functioning of the HPA axis
  • ACTH -> adrenal glands: situated atop the kidneys, receive the message to release the message to release cortisol
84
Q

Allostatic load

A
  • wear and tear of chronic stress
  • Overload
  • Cost of accommodation
  • Cumulative burden on systems that need to adjust constantly to psychological or environmental demands
85
Q

Sympathetic nervous system (SNS)

A

releases important chemicals such as epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenalin) that send a burst of energy to those organs necessary for fight or flight while diverting energy from less necessary systems.

86
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)

A

counteracts the sympathetic system’s effects and down-regulates its activity once the threat has passed.

87
Q

Cortisol

A
  • glucocorticoid hormone produced by humans
  • Stress hormones
  • Travel back to the brain
  • Bind to receptors on the amygdala and the hippocampus
  • Sufficient glucocorticoid receptors exist to terminate the system effectively
  • Inadequate system of glucocorticoid receptors- hyperctive stress system
88
Q

Atypical depression

A

blunted cortisol functions

89
Q

Melancholic depression

A

elevated cortisol levels

90
Q

Cytokines

A
  • chemical messengers of the immune system
  • Are produced during the immune response
  • Can be either pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory
  • Inflammation: body’s protective response to infection or injury
  • When appropriate, inflammation is adaptive
  • When inflammatory processes persist unremittingly, mental and physical diseases can result
  • Overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines -> depression and other mood disorders
  • Pass through the blood-brain barrier to affect brain areas related to emotion
91
Q

Dose-response relationship

A
  • between numbers of prenatal stressors and later maladaptive outcomes
  • Lower levels of stressors predicted lower symptoms levels
  • Symptoms increased with each additional stressor exposure

Lifespan (11 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions