Chapter 6

Question 1

What did Roger Shepard say about generalization gradients?

Answer 1

He said they are one of the most basic constant laws of psychology (declining rapidly on either side of peak)

Question 2

Consequential region?

Answer 2

This is a key issue for generalization. Identifying an inclusive set or range of stimuli with the same consequences as the training or target stimulus.

Question 3

Shepard claimed what about the pigeons pecking the yellow-orange light?

Answer 3

He said that the pigeons are not confused by the yellow orange light, but it expects, based on what it learned from the yellow light, that pecking it will result in food.

Question 4

Discrete component representation?

Answer 4

Each possible stimulus is represented by it’s own unique node (or component) in the model

Question 5

stimulus generalization network?

Answer 5

Has input nodes (green, yellow green, yellow etc), modifiable weights, output nodes, which leads to the response.

Question 6

That network with the colors fails to show…?

Answer 6

A smooth generalization gradient shown by pigeons.

Question 7

Discrete component situations are applicable to situations…?

Answer 7

in which the similarity between cues is small enough that there’s a negligible response transfer from one to another.

Question 8

Distributed representations?

Answer 8

Stimuli are represented by overlapping sets of nodes or stimulus elements.

Question 9

What does it mean if the nodes are laid out in topographic representation?

Answer 9

Nodes responding to physically similar stimuli are placed next to each other.

Question 10

The weights from internal representation nodes that have never been associated with reward remain ____.

Answer 10

0

Question 11

Study with Box A and B? (Discrimination training)

Answer 11

Participants were given many squares differing in brightness and size. Then they were asked, are these physically identical? The participants trained in brightness discrimination showed much more confusing with size and vice versa.

Question 12

Negative patterning? Why is it difficult?

Answer 12

When the response to individual cues is positive while the respond to the compound is negative. It required suppressing the natural tendency to generalize about similar stimuli.

Question 13

Category learning?

Answer 13

The process by which animals and humans learn to classify stimuli into different categories.

Question 14

Combinatirial explosion?

Answer 14

Occurs when a huge number of possible combinations are created, too much for the mind to handle.

Question 15

Meaning-based generalization?

Answer 15

The stimuli are assumed to have the same meaning even though they do not have any relevant physical similarities.

Question 16

Similarity based generalization?

Answer 16

Arises between two stimuli that are physically similar.

Question 17

Co-occurrence of two stimuli is sufficient to produce meaning based generalization from on ____ to another.

Answer 17

Stimulus.

Question 18

Acquired equivalence?

Answer 18

A phenomenon in which prior training to treat 2 stimuli as equivalent increases generalization between them. So generalization occurring between two non-combined stimuli that share the same consequence.

Question 19

Is physical similarity the only cause of generalization?

Answer 19

No, animals sometimes generalize because of co-occurrence.

Question 20

What does faulty inverse reasoning in generalization mean?

Answer 20

80% of the NBA players are black. Most NBA players are black. Most black men are not NBA players.

Question 21

Representations directly influence generalization behavior. Example?

Answer 21

New yorker has a map in their heads of all the different neighborhoods, making it harder to generalize in between them.

Question 22

Important distinctions are ____. Why?

Answer 22

Enhanced. Because we have limited neurons, so it makes sense to use them towards something important.

Question 23

Receptive field?

Answer 23

Range of physical stimuli that activates a particular neuron.

Question 24

Homunculus?

Answer 24

Distorted neural representation of human figure, where highly sensitive regions are exaggerated

Question 25

The primary sensory cortex is organized ____.

Answer 25

Topographically. Neighboring cortical regions respond to similar stimuli i.e. Neurons responding to teeth and gums tend to be adjacently placed.

Question 26

Brain organization resembles distributed representation?

Answer 26

550 Hz tone activated neuron (nodes) 2 3 and 4, whilst 560 Hz activates 3 4 and 5. There is an overlap in both subsets. The 550 tone will likely generalize to 560.

Question 27

Richard Thompson experiment with removing sensory cortex areas?

Answer 27

Removed A1, S1, V1 (one per one) in animals, and found that these sensory cortex areas are responsible for correct generalization, but the animals could still learn.

Question 28

What happens if a part of a body becomes dysfunctional?

Answer 28

The homunculus will be modified to reduce it’s representation, and increase the cortical representation of areas which will in turn be more sensitive/active.

Question 29

Norman Weinberger study? (Guinea)

Answer 29

Guinea pigs received 2500 Hz tone paired with shock. Neuronal response to 2500 Hz increased, whilst response to other tones like 1000 decreased. If enough neurons changed their response, it would result in a modification of cortical representation.

Question 30

Norman Weinberger study?

Answer 30

A tone presented alone, neuronal response decreases to the particular frequency. If shock and tone are not paired, no change occurs. Cortical plasticity is due to tone-shock pairing.

Question 31

Stimulus presentation is ___ enough for cortical plasticity.

Answer 31

Not. It must have a meaningful consequence.

Question 32

What happens to one sensory cortex area if there is change in another?

Answer 32

It will cause cortical plasticity because the sensory cortex doesn’t receive anything specific about the stimulus but rather that cortical remapping is necessary

Question 33

What is the basal forebrain important for?

Answer 33

Learning and memory.

Question 34

Nucleus basalis?

Answer 34

Part of basal forebrain. Projects to cortex and amygdala. When activated, releases acetylcholine which enables cortical plasticity.

Question 35

What releases acetylcholine?

Answer 35

Nucleus basalis when it is activated.

Question 36

What does the neuromodulator acetylcholine do?

Answer 36

Enables cortical plasticity.

Question 37

What is the nueromodulator released by the nucleus basalis?

Answer 37

Acetylcholine.

Question 38

When a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus, the nucleus balias becomes activated, and then…?

Answer 38

It releases acetylcholine which enables cortical remapping.

Question 39

The amygdala encodes ____ information.

Answer 39

Emotional.

Question 40

When the amygdala encodes emotional information, it signals the nucleus balias to do what?

Answer 40

Release acrtylcholine.

Question 41

Hippocampal region helps learning about ____ amongst stimuli.

Answer 41

Relationships.

Question 42

Sensory preconditioning?

Answer 42

Sensory preconditioning is a phenomenon of classical conditioning that demonstrates learning of an association between two stimuli during an initial phase where the two stimuli (S1 and S2) are presented together but never followed by reinforcement. During the first stage of the experiment, presentations of S1 are followed promptly by S2. In the second stage of the experiment, S2 is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that it becomes a conditioned stimulus. Finally, in the third stage of the experiment, S1 is presented by itself. The phenomenon is demonstrated if S1 elicits a conditioned response during stage 3.

Question 43

In sensory preconditioning, if an animal has damage to hippocampal region, what will happen in stage 3?

Answer 43

They will not respond. They will display no sensory preconditioning.

Question 44

Acquired equivalence?

Answer 44

We treat 2 things alike because they are associated with a common stimulus.

Question 45

Configural node?

Answer 45

A detector for a unique configuration of two cues, such as a certain tone and light.

Question 46

Hippocampal region?

Answer 46

Hippocampus and associated brain regions (also referred to as medial temporal lobe)

Question 47

Discrete-component representation?

Answer 47

A representation in which each individual stimulus (or stimulus feature) corresponds to one element (node) in the model.

Question 48

When does latent inhibition occur?

Answer 48

When the CS-US association is slower in animals given prior exposure to the CS compared to animals given equivalent prior exposure to the context alone.

Question 49

Latent inhibition in rabbit eyeblink conditioning is eliminated by what?

Answer 49

Hippocampal region damage.

Question 50

Hippocampus ____ necessary for learning a stimulus-response association.

Answer 50

Isn’t.

Question 51

What is the hippocampal region important for?

Answer 51

Developing new representations.

Question 52

fMRI reveals that hippocampal region is active during training (when learning and developing representations) but less active in training when representations are used to form behavioural responses

Answer 52

True

Question 53

Hippocampal abnormalities are a core feature of ____.

Answer 53

Schizophrenia.

Question 54

Schizophrenics can ____ but have trouble ____.

Answer 54

Learn simple associations, transferring associations to new contexts.

Question 55

Acquired equivalence study by Myers?

Answer 55

1. Brunette prefers blue over green fish. Blonde prefers blue over green fish. Particpants should learn that these women are equivalent in preference of fish. 2. Brunette prefers red over yellow fish. 3. Participants couldn’t figure out if the blonde would prefer red or yellow, because they are unable to generalize (the schizo’s)

Question 56

Shohamy and Wagner realized what?

Answer 56

The hippocampal activity increased during the learning phase. Thus, hippocampal activity is necessary for FORMING stimulus representations.

Question 57

Transitive inference?

Answer 57

Learned information guides later inferences. Schizo’s are bad at this. Schizo’ are bad at transfer generalization of previously learned rules in new contexts.

Question 58

Generalization gradient?

Answer 58

A graph showing how physical changes in stimuli (plotted on the horizontal axis) correspond to changes in behavioral responses (plotted on the vertical axis)

Question 59

Negative patterning?

Answer 59

In classical conditioning, a procedure in which two conditional stimuli are paired with an unconditional stimulus when they are presented alone, but occur without the unconditional stimulus when they are combined.