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Psyk 121 - FINAL > Chapter 6. > Flashcards

Chapter 6. Flashcards

1
Q

What is emotion (in infants)?

A

The feeling, or affect, that occurs when a person is in a state or interaction that is important to self and well-being.

Emotions influence infants’ social responses and adaptive behaviors as they interact with others in their world.

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2
Q

3 elements of emotions

A
  1. The subjective feeling
  2. The physiological component
  3. The overt behavior
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3
Q

Emotion is characterized by behavior.

What is the behavior of emotion?

A

The behavior reflects the pleasantness or unpleasantness of the state a person is in or the transactions being experienced.

Classified as positive or negative.

Emotions play an important role in:
-organizationing behaviour
-Emotions drive behaviour

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4
Q

What do infants communicate with emotion?

A

Through emotions infants communicate:

joy, sadness, interest, and
fear.

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5
Q

Environmental influences on emotion an attachment.

A

Emotion-linked interaction provide the foundation for an infant’s developing attachment to the parent.

Relationships and culture provide diversity in emotional experiences.

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6
Q

What parts of the brain has to do with emotion?

A

Brain stem, Hippocampus and Amygdala

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7
Q

Primary/Basic emotions

A

Emotions present in humans and other animals, early in life (the
first six months).

  • Joy
  • Anger (expressed around 6 months, healthy response to frustration.)
  • Sadness (stressful, appears in first 6 months, production of cortisol, whit-drawl.)
  • Fear ( about 9 months, in response to people, things, or situations.)
  • Disgust.
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8
Q

Secondary/ Self-Conscious Emotions.

A

After1 year: Require self-awareness, especially consciousness and a sense of “me.”

*Jealousy
* Empathy
* Embarrassment.
* Shame
* Guilt

Developmentalists increasingly believe that we don’t experience
these secondary emotions until after the first year.

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9
Q

Emotional Development toddlers

A

Toddlers’ emotions:

Anger and fear become less frequent and more focused.

Temper tantrums may appear.

Laughing and crying become louder and more discriminating.

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10
Q

How many different types of cries can babies produce?

A

Crying is the most important mechanism newborns have for communicating.

3 kinds of cries

Basic cry: a rhythmic pattern usually consisting of a cry, a briefer silence, a shorter whistle, then a rest before the next cry.

Anger cry: a variation of the basic cry, with more excess air forced through the vocal cords.

Pain cry: a sudden long, loud cry followed by breath holding.

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11
Q

What are the two main types of smiles infants create?

A

Smiling is a key social signal and important to social interaction.

Reflexive smile: a smile that does NOT occur in response to external stimuli. Usually appears in the first month, often during sleep.

Social smile: a smile in response to an external stimulus. Occurs as early as 6-8 weeks of age, typically in response to a face. The infant’s social smile can have a powerful impact on caregivers.

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12
Q

How does emotion regulation develop during infancy and into childhood/adolescence?

A

Regulation of emotions begins in infancy (4-6m).

Infants develop an ability to inhibit, or minimize, the intensity of emotional reactions.

Strategies include:
* Looking away
* Moving closer to their
caregiver
* Acting out (frustration)

Both genetics and parenting influence children’s emotion regulation.

Infants with negative temperaments have fewer regulation strategies.

Caregivers’ actions and contexts influence emotion regulation. Soothing a crying infant helps the infant develop an adaptive emotion regulation, a sense of trust and secure attachment to the caregiver. Depressed mothers rock and touch their crying infants less.

With age, children develop more effective strategies. Cognitive processes influence infants’ and children’s emotional
development….

Children learn cognitive
strategies to control emotions and emotional arousal. Common strategies include suppression and disengagement.

Adolescents: engagement coping strategies. (individual attempts made to change a stressful situation or one’s reactions to it.)

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13
Q

Stranger anxiety/wariness

A

Infants no longer smiles at any friendly face but cries or looks frightened when an unfamiliar person moves too close.

Is an expression of fear.

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14
Q

Separation anxiety

A

Tears, dismay, or anger occur when a familiar caregiver leaves.

If it remains strong after age 3, it may be considered an emotional disorder.

Is an expression of fear.

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15
Q

Separation protest

A

The distressed crying of an infant when the caregiver leaves.

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16
Q

What is the difference between personality and temperament?

A

Personality is a pattern of responding to people and objects in the environment where temperament rather is inborn predispositions towards emotional reactivity, self regulations and activity level.

Temperament effects how personality develops.

Temperament is composed of the in born physical, mental, and emotional traits they were born with. Personality, on the other hand, involves characteristics and qualities that are acquired throughout life, such as: Thoughts. Preferences.

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17
Q

What are a few important ways that researchers have classified temperament?

A

Emotional reactivity

Self- regulation

Activity level

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18
Q

What is temperament?

A

Temperament is inborn predispositions towards emotional reactivity, self- regulation, and activity
level, that form the foundations of personality.

Temperament refers to individual differences in…
* how quickly emotion is shown
* how strong emotions are felt
* how long emotion lasts, and
* how quickly emotions fades away.

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19
Q

How consistent is temperament across the lifespan?

A

Temperament tends to be quite stable over time.

(In contrast with social attitudes)

Over the lifespan we tend to become more:
* Agreeable
* Conscientious
* Stable
* Self-confident
* Cautious

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20
Q

5 key dimensions of temperament?

A
  1. Activity level: tendency to move often and vigorously, rather than to remain passive or immobile.
  2. Approach/positive emotionality is a tendency to move toward, rather than away, from new experiences, usually accompanied by positive emotion.
  3. Inhibition is the flip side of approach and is a tendency to respond with fear or withdrawal in new situations.This seems to be a
    precursor to shyness.
  4. Negative emotionality is the tendency to respond with anger, fussing, loudness, or irritability or a low threshold of frustrations.
  5. Effortful control/task persistence is the ability to stay focused and to manage attention and effort. (Linked to self- regulation)
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21
Q

Reactivity

(temperament and personality)

A

Variations in speed and intensity with which an individual responds to situations with positive or negative emotions.

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22
Q

Self-regulation

(temperament and personality)

A

Variations in the extent or effectiveness of an individual’s abilities to control their emotions.

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23
Q

Chess and Thomas’ classification

3 types of children and their temperament:

A

Easy child: generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences.

Difficult child: reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change.

Slow-to-warm-up child: has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood.

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24
Q

Kagan’s behavioral inhibition

A

Focuses on differences between a shy, subdued, timid child—an inhibited child - and the sociable,
extraverted, bold child.

Inhibited children react to many aspects of unfamiliarity with initial avoidance, distress, or subdued affect.

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25
Q

Rothbart and Bates’ classification

A

Extraversion/surgency includes approach, pleasure, activity, smiling, and laughter—Kagan’s uninhibited children.

Negative affectivity includes fear, frustration, sadness, and discomfort; these children are easily distressed. Kagan’s inhibited children.

Effortful control includes attentional focusing and shifting, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, and low-intensity pleasure.

Effortful control is an important indicator for self-regulation.

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26
Q

Do genetic factors influence temperament?

A

The contemporary view is that temperament is a biologically- based but evolving aspect of behavior.

Heredity: Identical twins are more alike in temperament than fraternal twins.

Temperament is epigenetic, originating in the genes but affected by child-rearing practices.

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27
Q

Do environmental factors, such as parenting style, influence temperament?

A

Environment has an effect:
Parents may react differently to an infant’s temperament depending on gender.

Parents may also be able to either increase or decrease the effects of an
infant’s inborn temperamental tendencies.

Caregivers’ reactions may also depend in part on culture— where behavioral inhibition is more valued in China, for example, than in North
America.

28
Q

What does Erik Erickson view as the key psychosocial challenges during infancy and the toddler years?

A

Trust or mistrust. If needs are met infants develops basic trust.

Trust and the development of self and independence are often seen as central to personality development in infancy.

According to Erikson, the stage of the first year of life is trust-versus-mistrust—an issue that arises again at each successive stage of development.

A period during which the infant learns to trust the world around her or becomes cynical about the social environment’s ability to meet her needs.

physical comfort + sensitive care = trust in infancy

29
Q

Niche-Picking

A

People of all ages choose the experiences that reflect their temperaments.

30
Q

Goodness of fit

A

The match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands with which the child must cope.

Certain characteristics make children more vulnerable to setbacks in adverse contexts; Infants with difficult temperaments are more vulnerable to negative parenting

-These same characteristics also make them more susceptible to optimal growth in very supportive conditions.

31
Q

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt - Erikson

A

Independence becomes important in the second year, in Erikson’s stage of autonomy versus shame and
doubt.

Autonomy builds as mental and motor abilities develop.

Childrenhow are encourighed to do things on their own. - Build confidence

32
Q

What is self-concept? How does self-concept develop during infancy?

A

Self-concept is an understanding and
evaluation of who we are. It emerges gradually.

As the infant’s understanding of self advances, it is matched by parallel progressions in the baby’s expression of emotions.
– Near the end of the first year, babies use the caregiver’s emotions to guide their own feelings.

33
Q

What are the 3 main aspects of sense of self that develop during infancy?

A

There are different aspects of “self”. during infancy we can talk about:
1. The emotional self
2. The subjective self (existential self)
3. The objective (categorical) self

The emotional self:
Around 2 – 3 months. Development of the emotional self begins when the baby learns to identify changes in emotions expressed in others’ faces

The subjective/existential self:
Knowing that “I exist” an infant’s awareness that she or he is a separate person who endures through time and space and can act on the environment.

Begins to emerge at 2-3 months - the same age that social smiling emerges. – Knowing: I exist. I have
some permanence.
– Fully emerged by 8-12
months.

The objective self/categorical:
The toddler’s understanding that she is defined by various categories such as gender or qualities such as
shyness.

34
Q

What does the classic mirror test demonstrate?

A

Around 18 months a child develops the initial self- awareness that delineates the formation of the objective self.

  • Mirror Recognition

They understand that the dot is on them, they have a sense of self and recognize their reflection.

35
Q

When and how does social orientation and understanding develop during infancy?

A

From early in their development,
infants are captivated by the social world, especially facial expressions and voices.

They develop social orientation and understanding through social peer interactions, imitation and facial play.

Intention, goal-directed behavior, and meaningful interactions with others begin to occur toward the end of the first year.

Between 18 and 24 months, with increasing peer interaction, children markedly increase imitative and reciprocal play.

Locomotor skills allow infants to independently initiate social interchanges, increasing independence.

36
Q

How is joint attention different from social referencing?

A

Joint attention is when two people are focusing their attention on an object and each is aware that the other is attending to that same object.

Social referencing is observing someone else’s expressions and reactions and using the other person as a social reference. - “reading” emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation.

37
Q

What is synchrony? Why is it important?

A

A mutual, interlocking pattern of attachment behaviors shared by a parent and child;
* A coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant.

Synchrony lets infants and caregivers communicate the crucial messages that one person seeks to share with another.

Both partners are active- a powerful learning tool.

Synchrony begins with adults imitating infants with tone and rhythm and responding to nuances of infant facial expressions and body motions.

Synchrony is important because it helps infants learn to read others’ emotions and to develop skills of social interaction.
– Usually begins with parents imitating infants.

oxytocin and the dopamine gets released and are important in the maternal-infant bond.

38
Q

What does the still face experiment demonstrate?

A

Experimental practice in which an adult keeps his or her face unmoving and expressionless in face-to-face interaction with an infant

▪ Babies are very upset by the still face and show signs of stress.
▪ Lack of synchrony is a troubling sign.

New technology, like phones can lessen the amount of synchrony.

39
Q

Goal directed behaviour

A

Children start participate in deliberate, goal-directed behaviors. They start thinking about what they want to do, how and where to achieve it, and then they perform an action to do it.

The ability to move in goal-directed
pursuits leads to further efforts to explore and develop skills.

Intention, goal-directed behavior, and meaningful interactions with others begin to occur toward the end of the first year.

40
Q

joint attention

A

Two people focusing their attention on an object and each is aware that the other is attending to that same object.

Joint attention and gaze- following help the infant understand that other people have intentions.

By around 12 months of age joint attention has developed to the extent that children can direct their caregiver’s attention.

Joint attention shows that children are beginning to understand that other people have different mental
states.

– The ability to engage in joint attention may be a precursor to theory of mind.

41
Q

Theory of mind

A

The ability to infer and understand another’s mental state (the beliefs, thoughts, intentions and feelings of another), and to use this information to explain and predict human behavior.

42
Q

Social refrencing

A

Social referencing is observing someone else’s expressions and reactions and using the other person as a social reference. - “reading” emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation.

Looking to trusted person for emotional cues- If previously ignored by caregiver, will look to others Seeking emotional responses or information from other people.

The child that looks to it’s mother to know if it can crawl over the glass that looks like a drop.

43
Q

Neuroscience and attachement

A

oxytocin and the neurotransmitter dopamine gets released when infant’s and their caregiver interacts and is important in the maternal-infant bond.

Higher levels of testosterone may have negative effects on father- infant synchrony.

The prefrontal cortex, the amygdala and the hypothalamus may play an important role in infant-caregiver attachment.

44
Q

What behaviors can infants engage in order to promote attachment with caregivers?

A

Infants show their attachment in several ways.

Proximity-seeking: approaching and following their caregivers.

Contact-maintaining: touching, snuggling, and holding

The newborn is thought to actively seek attachment - cooing, smiling, cries and clings - all in order to elicit attachment behaviours from their primary caregiver.

Separation anxiety: expressions of discomfort, such as crying, when separated from an attachment figure.

– Social referencing: an infant’s use of others’ facial expressions as a guide to his or her own emotions.

Stranger anxiety: expressions of discomfort, such as clinging to the
mother, in the presence of strangers -
– At about 8 months, soon after object permanence develops, children display stranger anxiety when separated from their caregivers.

45
Q

How did John Bowlby describe attachment as developing in the first two years of life?

A

Attachment: the emotional tie to a parent experienced by an infant, from which the child derives security. An enduring social- emotional relationship.

Attachment theory: the view that the ability and need to form an attachment relationship early in life are genetic characteristics of all human beings. Biologically predisposed to form attachments.

Affectional bond: the emotional tie to an infant experienced by a parent

Reactive attachment disorder: a disorder that appears to prevent a child from forming close social relationships

46
Q

What is an internal working model?

A

Internal models: expectations about caregiver’s availability and quality of responsiveness.

The child’s confidence concerning availability of the attachment figure.

The Child’s expectations of rebuff or affection

The Child’s sense of assurance in the safe base

47
Q

Bolbys 4 phases to establish attatchement - Phase 1

A

Phase 1: 0 – 2 months:

Non-focused orienting and signalling: Uses an innate set of behaviour patterns to signal needs

Proximity promoting behaviours: (Ainsworth) -Infants direct their attachment to human figures.

48
Q

Bolbys 4 phases to establish attatchement - Phase 2

A

Phase 2: 2 – 7 months:

Focus on one or more figures

Smiles more at people who regularly care for her.

Still uses proximity promoting behaviors.

Attachment becomes focused on one figure (primary caregiver).

49
Q

Bolbys 4 phases to establish attatchement - Phase 3

A

Phase 3: 7 – 24 months

Secure base behaviour
Proximity seeking behaviours (Ainsworth) - Specific attachments develop.

With increased locomotion, babies actively seek contact with regular caregivers. Most important person used as a safe base for explorations.

50
Q

Bolbys 4 phases to establish attatchement - Phase 4

A

Phase 4: 24 months and beyond

Internal working model. Children become aware of others’ feelings and goals and account for them in their own actions.

Plays a role in later relationships with early caregivers and in other significant relationships.

51
Q

Can we study attachment in the lab? If so, how?

A

Mary Ainsworth: developed a way to test attachment in infancy.

Strange Situation:
Laboratory procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants’ reactions to the stress of various adults’ comings and goings in an unfamiliar playroom.

These are evaluated using a series of 8 episodes, with children between 12 and 18 months.

Observe key behaviors

▪ Exploration of the toys: a secure toddler plays happily.
▪ Reaction to the caregiver’s departure: a secure toddler misses the caregiver.
▪ Reaction to the caregiver’s return: a secure toddler welcomes the caregiver’s reappearance.

52
Q

What are the steps involved in the strange situation task?

A

1.Observer brings mother and baby into experimental room and leaves.

  1. Mother sits in chair while baby explores.
  2. Stranger comes in and is silent for a minute, talks to mother for a minute, and then approaches baby. Mother leaves.
  3. Stranger and baby are alone.
  4. First reunion: Mother returns, greets, and comforts baby. After engaging baby in play, mother says “bye- bye” and leaves.
  5. Second separation: Baby is alone.
  6. Stranger enters and is alone with baby.
  7. Second reunion: Mother enters, greets, and picks up baby. Stranger leaves.
53
Q

What are the 4 attachment qualities/styles?

A

Secure attachment:
▪ Relationship (type B) in which infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver. In a secure type of relationship, mothers are more sensitive to their infant’s needs and their infant tends to be less fussy and enjoy physical contact.

Insecure-avoidant attachment:
▪ Pattern of attachment (type A) in which infant avoid connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence, departure, or return.

Ambivalent attachment:
▪ pattern of attachment in which the infant shows little exploratory behaviour, is greatly upset when separated from the parent, and is not reassured by the parent’s return or efforts to comfort him.

▪ Disorganized/disoriented attachment: a pattern of attachment in which an infant seems confused or apprehensive and shows contradictory behaviour, such as moving toward the parent while looking away from him or her.

54
Q

What caregiver factors influence attachment quality?

A

Emotional Responsiveness:
Emotionally available caregivers are ready and willing to form an emotional attachment to the infant.

Caregivers’ sensitivity is linked to secure attachment. Consistently available to respond to infants’ needs. Often let babies have an active part in determining the onset and pacing of interaction in the first year of life.

Contingent responsiveness:
caregivers are responsive to their infant’s verbal and nonverbal cues, and respond appropriately.

Unresponsiveness caregivers tend to promote an insecure - avoidant style
of attachment in infants.

Inconsistent caregivers (sometimes responsive, sometimes not responsive) tend to promote an insecure - ambivalent style of attachment.

Abusive caregivers are most likely to result in an insecure - disorganized style of attachment.

Mental Health - caregiver mental illness is associated with insecure attachment - especially maternal
depression.

55
Q

What are the longterm effects of secure attatchement quality?

A

Children with sensitive, responsive mothers tend to flourish socially and
academically.

They are less clinging and dependent on teachers and less aggressive and disruptive.

More sociable and more positive in their behavior toward friends and siblings.

More empathetic and more emotionally mature in their interactions in school and other settings outside the home.

More socially skilled in early years More likely to be leaders. Have higher self-esteem. Students leaving home to attend college tend to adjust well if they are closely attached to their
parents.

56
Q

What are some of the characteristics of securely and insecurely attached individuals?

A

Research links secure attachment to:
* positive emotional health
* social competence with peers
* better resilience.

57
Q

How consistent is attachment quality over time?

A

Bowlby’s theory suggests that individual differences in attachment should be relatively stable and become increasingly resistant to change as development progresses.

Recent studys have choose that life events and changes in realtionships can change our attachment quality.

58
Q

What is the number one predictor of an insecure attachment style at age 18 (according to one study)?

A

One recent study found that insecure attachment in infancy was not the best predictor of insecure attachment at 18…

Best predictor at 18 is: Enduring parental care (across infancy and
childhood) and life stressors are linked to later attachment quality.

Significant changes in the relationship caused by major life events can change the attachment pattern. (Death, move, violence, etc)

59
Q

What family factors influence attachment quality?

A

Married couples are more likely to have securely attached infants than cohabiting or single parents.

Low SES is associated with higher rates of insecure attachment.

60
Q

What are the longterm effect and consequences of attachment quality?

A

Bowlby suggests that by age 4 or 5 the child has internalized the attachment pattern, and that model tends to be imposed on other relationships, for example with teachers or peers.

Recent evidence suggests that it is not only early attachment experiences that are important to adult attachment patterns, but also the social contexts experienced through childhood and adolescence.

61
Q

What do Harlow’s monkeys tell us about the ‘science of love’?

A

In the 1960’s, the Harlows raised monkeys in isolation with one steal mother and one cloth mother. They never recoverd from being raised in isolation.

Harlow’s monkey experiment disproved the belief that love is only based on physical needs. The fact that the monkeys grew the most attached to the cloth mother, who satisfied no physical needs of the monkeys, showed that love and comfort were non-physical needs.

62
Q

Do we know what happens when children are deprived of early attachment experiences?

A

Romanian orphanage, the 250 children between ages 1 and 5 outnumbered caregivers 15 to 1.

They had lower intelligence scores and double the 20 percent rate of anxiety symptoms found in children assigned to higher-quality foster care
settings.

Research on them confirms that early
experience, not genetics, is the main problem.

63
Q

How do scientists working today evaluate attachment theory?

A

Results of some studies refute the idea that infancy is a critical or sensitive period for the influence of attachment.

Another criticism is that the theory ignores the diversity of socializing agents and contexts in infants’ worlds, such as older siblings and other family members (aunts,
grandparents).

Others argue that secure attachment does not adequately consider certain biological factors, such as genes and temperament.

Developmental cascade model: connections across domains over time influence developmental pathways and outcomes.

Consistently positive caregiving is a better explanation for the positive outcomes associated with secure attachment.

64
Q

What is ‘reciprocal socialization’?

A

Reciprocal socialization is bidirectional - Children socialize parents, just as parents socialize children.

The family subsystems have reciprocal influences on each other.
* For example, the marital relationship, parenting, and infant behavior and development can have both direct and indirect effects on each other.

65
Q

Who cares for babies in Canada?

A

In 1967, only 17% of Canadian mothers with pre-school children were in the labour force.

By 2007, roughly 70% of such women were working outside the home.

By 2015, nearly 70% of Canadian children reside in households where both parents are wage earners, most of whom work full-time, and this has led to major changes in childcare services.

Non-parental daycare of children is now a part of the Canadian way of life; as such, it is important to understand the developmental impact of daycare.

Studying alternative forms of child care in Canada, such as care provided by relatives or in a home setting, is difficult because of its “private nature”

Maternal interactions center on child care activities like feeding, changing diapers, and bathing.

Paternal interactions tend to be
play-centered.

66
Q

What are the developmental impacts of high vs. low quality care?

A

High-quality care is linked with positive or neutral outcomes.

Poor-quality care can be detrimental.

High-quality, cognitively enriched daycare has beneficial effects on
children’s overall cognitive development…

Is linked to better cognitive and language skills, cooperation, positive play with peers, and fewer behavioral issues. Especially for infants and children from poor families, who show significant and lasting gains in IQ and later school performance.

Cortisol levels increase over the course of the day in children in centre-based daycare and decrease in home-reared children which has been theorized to lead to higher levels of problem behavior in the former.

The number of hours spent in daycare is positively correlated with externalizing behaviours (aggression/non-compliance)

Infants of low-income families receive lower-quality child care.

These children benefit in terms of school readiness and language development if higher-quality care can be secured.

67
Q

Scaffolding in families

A

Parents time interactions so that infants experience turn-taking with parents.

Psyk 121 - FINAL (5 decks)

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