Chapter 6 Flashcards
*What is a baseline (see Chapter 3)?
A baseline is a measure of behavior prior to the introduction of a treatment for that behavior.
*Describe the baseline condition for Jill’s program.
Jill was placed in her walker, the researcher said “let’s walk”, and the number of steps that Jill took during four five-minute sessions were counted.
*Describe the treatment condition for Jill’s program.
Jill was placed in her walker, and each forward step that she took caused 3 seconds of popular music or familiar voices and colored lights to occur in her walker.
*What type of research design (see Chapter 4) was used to assess the effect of the treatment in Jill’s program?
A reversal-replication design.
What is a positive reinforcer?
A positive reinforcer is anything that, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the behavior to increase in frequency.
What is the principle of positive reinforcement?
In conjunction with the concept of positive reinforcer, the principle called positive reinforcement states that if someone in a given situation does something that is followed immediately by a positive reinforcer, then that person is more likely to do the same thing the next time he or she encounters a similar situation.
Describe an example of positive reinforcement of a desirable behavior that you have encountered. Identify the situation, behavior, immediate consequence, and probable long-term effects (as shown in Table 6.1). The example should not be from the text.
Situation: The students in a third- grade class have been given an assignment to complete.
Response: Suzanne, who is often quite disruptive, sits quietly at her desk and starts working on the assignment.
Immediate Consequences: The teacher walks over to Suzanne and gives a thumbs up.
Long-Term Effects: In the future, Suzanne is more likely to work on the assignments given to her in class.
What is operant behavior? Describe an example, and indicate how the example fits the definition of operant behavior.
Behaviors that operate on the environment to generate consequences and are in turn influenced by those consequences are called operant behaviors or operant responses. Jill’s walking was an operant behavior. Each of the responses listed in Table 6.1 is an example of operant behavior. Operant behaviors that are followed by positive reinforcers are increased, while operant behaviors that are followed by punishers are decreased.
Define negative reinforcement and give an example that is not from this chapter.
For example, a parent might nag a teenager to do the dishes. When he complies, the nagging immediately stops. Although the cessation of nagging when dishwashing occurs may increase the dishwashing response, it was the nagging’s immediate removal (not its introduction) following the response that increased it. This is an example of the principle of negative reinforcement also known as escape conditioning, which states that the removal of aversive stimuli immediately a er the occurrence of a response will increase the likelihood of that response.
How are positive and negative reinforcement similar, and how are they different?
As indicated by the word reinforcement, positive and negative reinforcement are similar in that both increase responses. They are different as indicated by the words positive and negative, in that positive reinforcement increases a response because of the presentation of a positive stimulus immediately after the response, whereas negative reinforcement increases a response by the removal or taking away of a negative or aversive stimulus immediately after the response.
In what way is positive reinforcement like gravity?
These are things that we all know about and that physicists have studied extensively and formulated into laws, such as the law of gravity. The principle of positive reinforcement, one of the principles of operant conditioning, is also a law. Scientific psychology has been studying this principle in great detail for over a century, and we know that it is an extremely important part of the learning process. We also know of a number of factors that determine the degree of influence the principle of reinforcement has on behavior. These factors have been formulated into guidelines to be followed when using positive reinforcement to increase desirable behavior.
Why is it necessary to be specific when selecting a behavior for a reinforcement program?
By being specific, you (a) help to ensure the reliability of detecting instances of the behavior and changes in its frequency, which is the measure by which one judges reinforcer effectiveness, and (b) increase the likelihood that the reinforcement pro- gram will be applied consistently.
List the five somewhat overlapping headings under which most positive reinforcers can be classified and give an example of each that would be a positive reinforcer for you.
Most positive reinforcers can be classified under five somewhat overlapping headings:
- Consumable - candy, cookies, fruit, and beverages
- Activity - opportunities to watch television, look at a picture book, or even stare out of a window
- Manipulative - opportunities to play with a favorite toy, build with LEGO®, color or paint, ride a bicycle, or surf the Internet
- Possessional - opportunities to sit in one’s favorite chair, wear a favorite shirt or dress, have a private room, or enjoy some other item that one can possess (at least temporarily)
- Social - affectionate pats and hugs, praise, nods, smiles, and even a simple glance or other indication of social attention
*Describe the Premack principle. Give an example.
The Premack Principle states that the opportunity to engage in a behavior that has a high probability of occurring can be used to reinforce a behavior that has a low probability of occurring. For example, a depressed student increased the frequency of positive self- statements by imagining a positive thought (a low-probability behavior) just before each instance of urinating (the high-probability behavior).
Describe the response deprivation model. Give an example.
According to the response deprivation model, to be a positive reinforcer the opportunity to engage in a given behavior does not have to be a behavior that the individual engages in a lot. That is, it does not have to be a high-probability behavior. Rather, the behavior simply has to be one that is currently occurring below its baseline level—i.e., the individual has been deprived of the opportunity to engage in the behavior. Hagge and Van Houten (2016) suggested that the response deprivation model would be particularly useful in organizations such as businesses. For example, an employee in a drugstore might be offered the opportunity to accompany the employer to an important meeting with a business associate contingent upon the employee carrying out some less desirable task such as cleaning, organizing, and stocking items in an exemplary manner. It might be that the employee ordinarily would seldom volunteer to go on a business trip of this sort. However, if for whatever reason the employee has gone on such trips less frequently than he or she normally would have done, the opportunity to go on the trip could be a very effective reinforcer.
*Suppose for a given individual Behavior 1 occurs 60% of the time, Behavior 2 occurs 25% of the time, and Behavior 3 occurs 15% of the time. Which method would be better for increasing the occurrence of Behavior 1 for that individual—the Premack principle or the response deprivation model? Explain.
The response-deprivation model. The opportunity to engage in behaviors 2 and 3 could serve as a reinforcer for behavior 1 so long as behaviors 2 and 3 were below their baseline level.
