Chapter 6 Flashcards
*What is a baseline (see Chapter 3)?
A baseline is a measure of behavior prior to the introduction of a treatment for that behavior.
*Describe the baseline condition for Jill’s program.
Jill was placed in her walker, the researcher said “let’s walk”, and the number of steps that Jill took during four five-minute sessions were counted.
*Describe the treatment condition for Jill’s program.
Jill was placed in her walker, and each forward step that she took caused 3 seconds of popular music or familiar voices and colored lights to occur in her walker.
*What type of research design (see Chapter 4) was used to assess the effect of the treatment in Jill’s program?
A reversal-replication design.
What is a positive reinforcer?
A positive reinforcer is anything that, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the behavior to increase in frequency.
What is the principle of positive reinforcement?
In conjunction with the concept of positive reinforcer, the principle called positive reinforcement states that if someone in a given situation does something that is followed immediately by a positive reinforcer, then that person is more likely to do the same thing the next time he or she encounters a similar situation.
Describe an example of positive reinforcement of a desirable behavior that you have encountered. Identify the situation, behavior, immediate consequence, and probable long-term effects (as shown in Table 6.1). The example should not be from the text.
Situation: The students in a third- grade class have been given an assignment to complete.
Response: Suzanne, who is often quite disruptive, sits quietly at her desk and starts working on the assignment.
Immediate Consequences: The teacher walks over to Suzanne and gives a thumbs up.
Long-Term Effects: In the future, Suzanne is more likely to work on the assignments given to her in class.
What is operant behavior? Describe an example, and indicate how the example fits the definition of operant behavior.
Behaviors that operate on the environment to generate consequences and are in turn influenced by those consequences are called operant behaviors or operant responses. Jill’s walking was an operant behavior. Each of the responses listed in Table 6.1 is an example of operant behavior. Operant behaviors that are followed by positive reinforcers are increased, while operant behaviors that are followed by punishers are decreased.
Define negative reinforcement and give an example that is not from this chapter.
For example, a parent might nag a teenager to do the dishes. When he complies, the nagging immediately stops. Although the cessation of nagging when dishwashing occurs may increase the dishwashing response, it was the nagging’s immediate removal (not its introduction) following the response that increased it. This is an example of the principle of negative reinforcement also known as escape conditioning, which states that the removal of aversive stimuli immediately a er the occurrence of a response will increase the likelihood of that response.
How are positive and negative reinforcement similar, and how are they different?
As indicated by the word reinforcement, positive and negative reinforcement are similar in that both increase responses. They are different as indicated by the words positive and negative, in that positive reinforcement increases a response because of the presentation of a positive stimulus immediately after the response, whereas negative reinforcement increases a response by the removal or taking away of a negative or aversive stimulus immediately after the response.
In what way is positive reinforcement like gravity?
These are things that we all know about and that physicists have studied extensively and formulated into laws, such as the law of gravity. The principle of positive reinforcement, one of the principles of operant conditioning, is also a law. Scientific psychology has been studying this principle in great detail for over a century, and we know that it is an extremely important part of the learning process. We also know of a number of factors that determine the degree of influence the principle of reinforcement has on behavior. These factors have been formulated into guidelines to be followed when using positive reinforcement to increase desirable behavior.
Why is it necessary to be specific when selecting a behavior for a reinforcement program?
By being specific, you (a) help to ensure the reliability of detecting instances of the behavior and changes in its frequency, which is the measure by which one judges reinforcer effectiveness, and (b) increase the likelihood that the reinforcement pro- gram will be applied consistently.
List the five somewhat overlapping headings under which most positive reinforcers can be classified and give an example of each that would be a positive reinforcer for you.
Most positive reinforcers can be classified under five somewhat overlapping headings:
- Consumable - candy, cookies, fruit, and beverages
- Activity - opportunities to watch television, look at a picture book, or even stare out of a window
- Manipulative - opportunities to play with a favorite toy, build with LEGO®, color or paint, ride a bicycle, or surf the Internet
- Possessional - opportunities to sit in one’s favorite chair, wear a favorite shirt or dress, have a private room, or enjoy some other item that one can possess (at least temporarily)
- Social - affectionate pats and hugs, praise, nods, smiles, and even a simple glance or other indication of social attention
*Describe the Premack principle. Give an example.
The Premack Principle states that the opportunity to engage in a behavior that has a high probability of occurring can be used to reinforce a behavior that has a low probability of occurring. For example, a depressed student increased the frequency of positive self- statements by imagining a positive thought (a low-probability behavior) just before each instance of urinating (the high-probability behavior).
Describe the response deprivation model. Give an example.
According to the response deprivation model, to be a positive reinforcer the opportunity to engage in a given behavior does not have to be a behavior that the individual engages in a lot. That is, it does not have to be a high-probability behavior. Rather, the behavior simply has to be one that is currently occurring below its baseline level—i.e., the individual has been deprived of the opportunity to engage in the behavior. Hagge and Van Houten (2016) suggested that the response deprivation model would be particularly useful in organizations such as businesses. For example, an employee in a drugstore might be offered the opportunity to accompany the employer to an important meeting with a business associate contingent upon the employee carrying out some less desirable task such as cleaning, organizing, and stocking items in an exemplary manner. It might be that the employee ordinarily would seldom volunteer to go on a business trip of this sort. However, if for whatever reason the employee has gone on such trips less frequently than he or she normally would have done, the opportunity to go on the trip could be a very effective reinforcer.
*Suppose for a given individual Behavior 1 occurs 60% of the time, Behavior 2 occurs 25% of the time, and Behavior 3 occurs 15% of the time. Which method would be better for increasing the occurrence of Behavior 1 for that individual—the Premack principle or the response deprivation model? Explain.
The response-deprivation model. The opportunity to engage in behaviors 2 and 3 could serve as a reinforcer for behavior 1 so long as behaviors 2 and 3 were below their baseline level.
*“It is always the individual’s performance that tells you whether you have selected an effective reinforcer.” Explain what this means.
If the behavior that leads to the reinforcer is strengthened, then the reinforcer is effective.
Using the definition of positive reinforcer, describe the steps to test if a particular item is a reinforcer for someone. Illustrate with an example that is not from this chapter.
No matter how you have selected a potential reinforcer for an individual, it is always the individual’s performance that tells you whether you have selected an effective reinforcer. When you are not sure if a particular item is rein- forcing, you can always conduct an experimental test that involves going back to the definition of a reinforcer given at the beginning of this chapter. Simply choose a behavior that the individual emits occasionally and that does not appear to be followed by any reinforcer, record how often the behavior occurs without obvious reinforcement over several trials, and then present the item immediate following the behavior for a few additional trials and see what happens. If the individual begins to emit that behavior more often, then your item is indeed a reinforcer. If the performance does not increase, then you do not have an effective reinforcer. In our experience, not using an effective reinforcer is a common error of training programs.
Using the definition of positive reinforcer, how might you conduct a test to determine if the social attention of a particular adult is or is not reinforcing for a withdrawn child?
- The first step is to choose a behavior that the individual emits occasionally and that does not appear to be followed by any reinforcer, and record how often the behavior occurs without obvious reinforcement over several trials. Then present the item immediately following the behavior for a few additional trials and see what happens. If the individual begins to emit that behavior more often, then it is a reinforcer, but if the performance does not increase, then it is not an effective reinforcer. For example, if a parent gives his child a jelly bean for each page the child reads the jelly bean may act as reinforcers for the child to continue to read the pages. However, the jelly beans would only be considered a reinforcer if it increases the behavior of reading. If the jelly beans do not allow for an increase in performance, then they are not considered to be reinforcers.
*Does extrinsic reinforcement undermine intrinsic motivation? Discuss.
Research indicates that the answer is no. Moreover, the notion that extrinsic reinforcers undermine intrinsic interest flies in the face of common sense. If that statement were true, then those people who genuinely enjoy their jobs should refuse to be paid for fear that their pay checks will destroy their enjoyment of their work.
What do behavior modifiers mean by the term deprivation? Describe an example.
We use the term deprivation to indicate the time during which an individual does not experience the reinforcer.
*Eg. John’s parents don’t let him eat pizza, until after baseball practice.
What do behavior modifiers mean by the term satiation? Describe an example.
The term satiation refers to that condition in which the individual has experienced the reinforcer to such an extent that it is no longer reinforcing. “Enough’s enough,” as the saying goes.
*Eg. Jessica is given a candy every time she solves a multiplication problem. Soon she grows tired of the candy, and won’t do her math.
What is a motivating operation? Describe two examples, one of which was not in this chapter.
Events or conditions—such as deprivation and satiation—that (a) temporarily alter the effectiveness of a reinforcer and (b) alter the frequency of behavior reinforced by that reinforcer are called motivating operations (MOs). Thus, food deprivation not only establishes food as an effective reinforcer for the person who is food deprived, it also momentarily increases various behaviors that have been reinforced with food. As another exam- ple, feeding a child very salty food would be an MO because (a) it would momentarily increase the effectiveness of water as a reinforcer for that child, and (b) it would also evoke behavior (e.g., turning on a tap, asking for a drink) that had previously been followed by water.
Should you tell an individual with whom you are using reinforcement about the reinforcement program before putting it into effect? Why or why not?
Yes. Instructions can facilitate behavioral change in several ways. First, specific instructions will speed up the learning process for individuals who understand them. Second, as indicated earlier instructions may influence an individual to work for delayed reinforcement. Third, adding instructions to reinforcement programs may help to teach individuals (such as very young children or persons with developmental disabilities) to learn to follow instructions.
*If you instruct someone about a positive reinforcement program for his or her behavior, is that bribery? Why or why not?
Not necessarily. Bribery is defined as a reward or gift often given to induce one to commit an immoral or illegal act. Provided that the behavior to be reinforced does not so qualify, instructing someone about a positive reinforcement for that behavior would not be bribery.
Distinguish between the direct-acting and indirect-acting effects of reinforcement.
The direct-acting effect of the principle of positive reinforcement is the increased frequency of a response because of its immediate reinforcing consequences. e indirect-acting effect of positive reinforcement is the strengthening of a response (such as the child cleaning her room in the morning) that is followed by a reinforcer (getting a toy in the evening) even though the reinforcer is delayed. Delayed reinforcers may have an effect on behavior because of instructions about the behavior leading to the reinforcer, and/or because of self-statements (or “thoughts”) that intervene between that behavior and the delayed reinforcer. The distinction between direct- and indirect-acting effects of reinforcement has important implications for practitioners. If you can’t present a reinforcer immediately following the desired behavior, then provide instructions concerning the delay of reinforcement.
*When Coach Keedwell required young swimmers to show improved performance in order to earn a fun activity at the end of practice, their performance improved dramatically. Was this a direct-acting or an indirect-acting effect of reinforcement? Justify your choice.
The reinforcer of the fun activity in Coach Keedwell’s program was indirect because it was delayed by more than 30 seconds following the desirable swimming behaviors that occurred earlier in the practice.
Describe an example of contingent reinforcement that is not in this chapter.
We say that a reinforcer is contingent when a specific behavior must occur before that reinforcer will be presented.
*You will get an icecream after you clean your room. (A behaviour must occur before reinforcer is presented)
Describe an example of noncontingent reinforcement that is not in this chapter.
We say that a reinforcer is noncontingent if that reinforcer is presented at a particular time regardless of the preceding behavior.
*Every child in the school gets to go out for recess at 10am. (Reinforcer is presented regardless of behaviour)
What is adventitious reinforcement? What is a superstitious behavior? Give an example of each that is not in this chapter.
Suppose, for example, that, unbeknown to a parent, little Johnny is in his bedroom drawing on the walls with a crayon when the parent calls out, “Johnny, let’s go get some ice cream.” is accidental contingency might increase Johnny’s tendency to draw on his walls. That is, behavior that is “accidently” followed by a reinforcer may be increased even if it did not actually produce the reinforcer. This is called adventitious reinforcement, and behavior increased in this way is called superstitious behavior. As another example, suppose a man playing a slot machine tends to cross his fingers because, in the past, doing so was accidentally followed by winning a jackpot. Such behavior would be considered superstitious.
What do we mean by the natural environment? by natural reinforcers? by programmed reinforcers?
A setting in which an individual carries out normal, everyday functions (i.e., not a situation explicitly designed for training) is referred to as the natural environment. Reinforcers that follow behavior in the course of everyday living (i.e., behavior that occur in the natural environment), are called natural reinforcers. Reinforcers that are arranged systematically by psychologists, teachers, and others in behavior modification programs are referred to as programmed reinforcers.
*Describe three behavioral episodes in this chapter that involved natural reinforcers. Justify your choices.
For example, reading signs is frequently reinforced by finding desired objects or directions, eating is reinforced by the taste of food, and flipping on a light switch is reinforced by the increased illumination in a room. In all three cases, the reinforcers occurred naturally following the behavior, the reinforcers were not deliberately managed to increase behavior.
What is meant by weaning an individual from a behavioral program?
The behavior modifier should always try to ensure that the behavior established in a training program will be reinforced and maintained in the natural environment. This is the process of weaning the individual from the program.
*What is schedule or reinforcement thinning?
Decreasing the amount of a reinforcer following a behavior, as a step towards weaning the individual of the reinforcer.
*Briefly describe, in a sentence each, eight factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement.
(a) specify a behavior precisely;
(b) select an appropriate reinforcer;
(c) deprive the individual of the reinforcer;
(d) ensure that the reinforcer is of sufficient magnitude and amount;
(e) present the reinforcer immediately following the desired behavior;
(f) use instructions to explain the program;
(g) ensure that reinforcers are contingent upon the desired behavior (and not noncontingent); and
(h) appropriately wean the individual from the program.
*Is it correct to conclude that a withdrawn child necessarily does not like attention from other people? Explain.
No. When an adult asks something of a child, a withdrawn reaction on the part of the child may get even more attention from the adult. If the withdrawn behavior subsequently increases, then the adult attention was functioning as a reinforcer, and it is reasonable to infer that the child liked the attention.
*Describe an example of the pitfall that involves a person unknowingly applying positive reinforcement to strengthen an undesirable behavior.
A child is noisily playing while his brother is trying to study. The brother gives the child a lollipop so that the child will be quiet. The child is immediately quiet and enjoys the lollipop. The chance that the child will play more noisily when the brother is studying is increased.
*State the partial-knowledge-misapplication pitfall. How was this pitfall exemplified by Coach Keedwell?
A person may know the principle but not realize some ramification that interferes with applying it effectively. For example, Coach Keedwell initially applied the reinforcer at the end of swimming practices, which made it non-contingent.
Consider this statement: “A college student was reinforced for studying for 3 hours on the weekend by getting a good grade on the test the following week.” How does this statement exemplify the inaccurate-explanation-of-behavior pitfall?
There are two common ways that individuals inaccurately explain behavior. First, a principle can be inaccurately used as an oversimplified explanation of a change in behavior. There was a long gap in time between the studying and receiving the “A.” When explaining a behavior, we should always look for immediate consequences that may have strengthened that behavior in the past. With respect to the student’s studying behavior, perhaps the night before the exam the student worried about failing, which caused the student to feel anxious. Perhaps the immediate consequence of studying was the removal of anxiety.
*State the second type of inaccurate-explanation-of-behavior pitfall. Describe an example.
The pitfall states that individuals without behavioral knowledge sometimes attempt to “explain” behavior by giving people a label. For example, if a teenager consistently leaves his room in a mess and never helps his parents around the house in any type of cleanup activity, his parents might “explain” his behavior by saying “He’s lazy.”
Ideally, what four qualities should a reinforcer have (besides the necessary quality of functioning as a reinforcer)? (See p. 78)
- Selecting the behavior to be increased.
- Selecting a reinforcer
- Applying positive reinforcement
- Weaning the student from the program
