Chapter 5: Operant Conditioning Learning the Outcomes of Behaviours Flashcards
Definition of operant conditioning?
the process whereby organisms learn to make or to refrain from making certain responses in order to obtain or avoid certain outcomes
What did Edward Thorndike study?
how animals learn new behaviours, specifically, how cats learned to escape from puzzle boxes
What is another name for operant conditioning?
instrumental conditioning
What did Edward Thorndike conclude from his study of cats behaviours?
when an animal’s response was followed by a satisfying outcome, then the probability of that response occurring again in the future would increase
Who first discovered operant conditioning?
B. F. Skinner
What is Edward Thorndike’s theory of law and effect?
The probability of a particular behavioural response increased or decreased depending on the consequences that followed; an animal has a range of behaviors: behaviors that lead to positive consequences for the animal tend to persist; those that do not tend to die out
Definition of discriminative stimulus?
a stimulus that signals whether a particular response will lead to a particular outcome
Definition of reinforcement?
the process of providing outcomes for a behaviour that increase the probability of that behaviour occurring again in the future
Why is it called discriminative stimulus?
is called a “discriminative stimulus” to emphasis that it helps the organism “discriminate” the conditions under which R(esponse) will lead to O(utcome).
The process of providing an outcome for a behaviour that increases the probability of that behaviour is called?
reinforcement
Who is Edward Tolman?
Argued that rats are like humans in that they are intrinsically motivated to learn the general layout of mazes by forming what he called a cognitive map
Why does Edward Tolman argue that the S(D) –> R framework was too limiting?
he believed that animals make responses because they (in some sense) understand that response R leads to a specific, predicted outcome O.
What is the S(D) –> framework?
In the presence of a particular stimulus, called the discriminative stimulus, or S(D), a particular response (R) may lead to a particular outcome (O).
In the Edward Thorndikes puzzle box, what is the S(D), R & O?
S(D) : the box
R : sequence of movements needed to open the door
O : the escape
When is the S(D) –> R association strengthened?
when Response is followed by a desirable Outcome
Operant conditioning can be formulated as a three-part association, what is it?
Discriminative Stimulus –> S(D) Response R –> Outcome O
Definition of Classical Conditioning?
Two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. Unconscious Learning
Difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
In classical conditioning, organisms experience an outcome (the US) whether or not they perform the conditioned response (CR).
In operant conditioning, by contrast, the outcome O depends on whether the organism performs the response R.
What is the learning curve that both operant and classical share?
negatively accelerated
Whenever you have to decide whether a paradigm is operant or classical, focus on the outcome. How can this be done to identify whether it is operant or classical?
If the outcome occurs regardless of responding, then the paradigm is classical; if it is contingent on a response, then the paradigm is operant.
In operant conditioning, the outcome (O) only follows the discriminative stimulus (SD) if?
a particular response (R)
Since retiring, Jim spends a lot of time sitting on his back porch, watching the birds and whistling. One day, he scatters crumbs, and birds come and eat them. The next day, he sits and whistles and strews crumbs, and the birds return. After a few days, as soon as Jim sits outside and starts whistling, the birds arrive. Is this classical or operant?
operant
Stimulus: whistling
Response: birds arrive
Outcome: getting crumbs
Shevonne’s dog Snoopy is afraid of thunder. Snoopy has learned that lightning always precedes thunder, so whenever Snoopy sees lightning, he runs and hides under the bed. Is this classical or operant?
Classical
US: scared of thunder
UR: Run & Hide
CS: Lightning
CR: Run & hide
Michael takes a new job close to home, and now he can walk to work. On the first morning, there are clouds in the sky. It starts to rain while Michael is walking to work, and he gets very wet. On the next morning, there are again clouds in the sky. Michael brings his umbrella along, just in case. When it rains, he stays dry. After that, Michael carries his umbrella to work anytime the sky looks cloudy. Is this classical or operant?
operant
Stimulus: clouds
Response: carry umbrella
Outcome: stay dry
In Carlos’s apartment building, whenever someone flushes the toilet, the shower water becomes scalding hot, causing him to flinch. Now, whenever he’s in the shower and hears the noise of flushing, he automatically flinches, knowing he’s about to feel the hot water. Is this classical or operant?
Operant
Stimulus: noise of flushing toilet while in the shower
Response: flinching
Outcome: not being burnt by hot water
Who is the psychologist known as the “radical behaviourist”?
B. F. Skinner
Definition of discrete trials?
Experimenter defined the beginning and end of each trial.
What were Thorndikes procedures categorised by?
Discrete trials
What is the definition fo free-operant paradigm?
The animal could operate the apparatus free whenever it chooses.
difference between free-operant paradigm and discrete trials paradigm?
in free-operant the animal could operate the apparatus freely with no need of the experimenter bu in discrete, the experimenter must control it themselves.
What is the Skinner box?
A conditioning chamber in which reinforcement or punishment is delivered automatically whenever an animal makes a particular response, in this case pressing the level.
What did Skinner create the be able to measure behaviour more directly?
A cage, now known as the Skinner box, with a wall were food is delivered automatically. It contained a lever when pressed dropped food. Eventually the animal is learns to press the lever to relieve food.
It the Skinner box operant or classical conditioning?
operant
What is the discriminative stimulus added to the Skinner box?
light. When the lever is pressed, food will only come if the light is on
Definition of operant response?
When a behavior is modified by its consequences, the probability of that behavior occurring again may either increase (in the case of reinforcement) or decrease (in the case of punishment).
Definition of instrumental response?
any response that achieves a goal or contributes to its achievement, such as a response that is effective in gaining a reward or avoiding pain
Skinner invented a means of recording responses automatically, what is it called?
Cumulative recorder
What is a cumulative recorder?
A device that records behavioural responses
How does a cumulative record work?
the pen moved each time the animal responded , but if it dint it would continue to draw a straight line, kind of like heart beat whenever the animal responded. The highest of the line represents the total number of responses that have been made in the entire experiment
A response is defined not by a particular pattern of motor actions but rather by…?
… by the outcome it produces
definition of shaping?
an operant condition technique in which successive approximations to a desired response are reinforced
Successful shaping of behavior involves three components, what are they?
1) Clearly define final response you want performed
2) Clearly assess performance starting level
3) Divide progression from starting point to the final target behavior into appropriate training steps/successive approximations
What is chaining?
organisms are gradually trained to execute complicated sequences of discrete responses.
Example fo when Skinner used chaining?
trained a rat to pull a string that released a marble, then to pick up the marble with its forepaws, carry it over to a tube and drop the marble inside the tube.
Difference between shaping and chaining?
Shaping: the learner learns by first approximately performing the goal behaviour.
Chaining: you take a multi-step task and break it down into a sequence of smaller tasks. Step-by-step.
What is backward chaining?
Doing chaining, step-by-step, by in the reversed order
Definition of magazine training?
training needed to familiarise an animal with the mechanism (usually a feeder) that delivers the reinforcer.
What are the two instrumental conditioning procedures?
Appetite Stimulus
Aversive Stimulus
Definition of reinforcer?
a consequence of behaviour that leads to increased likelihood of that behaviour occurring again in future
Definition of primary reinforcer?
a stimulus such as food, water, sex, or sleep, that has innate biological value to the organism and therefore will tend to repeat behaviours that provide access to these things
Who created the drive reduction theory?
Clark Hull
What is the drive reduction theory?
proposes that all learning reflect the innate, biological need to obtain primary reinforcers
Definition of reinforcement?
the process of providing outcomes (reinforces) that lead to INCREASED probability of behaviour
Definition of secondary reinforcer?
Reinforcers that initially have no biological value but have been paired with primary reinforcers, for example, money. used to exchange for water, food, etc.
Definition of token economy?
An environments in which tokens functions the same was as money does in the outside world
Definition of Negative Contrast?
The phenomenon in which the reinforcing value of one reward is reduced because a better reward is expected
What is a punisher?
a consequence of a behaviour that leads to decreased likelihood of that behaviour occurring again in the future
What is punishment in operant conditioning?
the process of providing outcomes for a behaviour that decrease the probability of that behaviour occurring again in the future
What is the negative contrast effect on the infant experiment?
infants will suck at a higher rate for sweet water than for plain water, indicating that the sweetened water is a preferred reinforcer. Infants who were given sweet water before given plain water sucked less vigorously than the infants who received plain water all along.
What did Thorndike originally assume regarding punishers?
that punishers were simply the inverse of reinforcers; whereas reinforcement increases that probability
What did Thorndike and Skinner both potentially conclude regarding punishment?
punishment is not nearly as effective as reinforcement at controlling behaviour
Many modern researchers argue that punishment can indeed be very effective in modifying behaviour, what are the 4 factors that determine how effective the punishment will be?
- Punishment leads to more variable behaviour
- Discriminative Stimuli for punishment can encourage cheating
- Concurrent reinforcement can undermine the punishment
- initial intensity matters
Common punishers for animals?
pain
confinement
exposure to predators
Common punishers for humans?
fines
social disapproval
jail
What is the process differential reinforcement of alternative behaviours
(DRA)?
a method to decrease a frequency of unwanted behaviours by instead reinforcing preferred alternate behaviours
Examples of when differential reinforcement of alternative behaviours can be used?
children with autism of developmental disorders showing persistent habits of self-injurious behaviour.
So rather than punishing the child for each instance of the unwanted behaviour, you can reward instances of desired behaviour
Difference between positive punishment & positive reinforcement?
c
Difference between negative punishment & negative reinforcement?
c
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c
