Chapter 2: The Neuroscience of Learning and Memory Flashcards
What is neuroscience?
The study of brain and the rest of the nervous system
Historically, most early studies of learning and memory focus on?
observable behaviour rather than on the brain and how it functions
The brain is just one component of a collection of body organs called?
the nervous system
What is the nervous system?
the organ system devoted to the distribution to the distribution and processing of signals that affect biological functions throughout the body
What is the Central nervous System (CNS)?
the part of the vertebrate nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord
What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
The part of the nervous system that transmits signals from sensory receptors to the CNS and carries commands from the CNS to muscles
What is a neuron?
a special type of cell that is one of the main competes of the nervous system
What are the 5 main nervous system components?
- CNS
- PNS
- Sensory Organs
- Muscles
- Body Organs
What neurons do PNS consist of?
consists of motor and sensory neurons that connect the brain to the spinal cord to the rest of the body
What are the 6 visible surfaces of the human brain?
- Frontal Lobe
- Parietal Lobe
- Temporal Lobe
- Occipital Lobe
- Brainstem
- Cerebellum
Where is the cerebral cortex located?
The brain tissue covering top and sides of the brain in most vertebrates
What is the cerebral cortex responsible for?
involved in storage and processing of sensory inputs and motor outputs
Where is the frontal lobe located?
FRONT
The part of the cerebral cortex lying at the front of the human brain
What is the purpose of the frontal lobe?
Enables a person to plan and perform actions
Where is the parietal lobe located?
TOP/PEAK
The part of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the human brain
What it the parietal lobe’s purpose?
important for processing somatosensory inputs
What is somatosensory?
touch
Where is the temporal lobe located?
SIDES
the part of the cerebral cortex lying at the sides of the human brain
What is the temporal lobe’s purpose?
Important for language and auditory processing and for learning new facts and forming new memories
Where is the occipital lobe located?
BACK
the part of the cerebral cortex lying at the rear of the human brain
What is the occipital lobe’s purpose?
Important for visual processing
Where is the cerebellum located?
A brain region lying below the cerebral cortex in the back of the head
What is the cerebellum’s purpose?
Responsible for the regulation and coordination of complex voluntary muscular movement, including classical conditioning of motor-reflex responses
Where is the brainstem?
a group of structure that connects the rest of the brain to the spinal cord
What is the brainstem’s purpose?
plays a key role in regulating automatic functions such as breathing and body temperature
Where are the 4 brain regions known to contribute to memory?
located near the centre of the brain
What are the 4 brain regions known to contribute to memory?
basal ganglia
thalamus
hippocampus
amygdala
Who is Franz Joseph Gall?
pioneered the idea that different areas of the cerebral cortex are specialised for different functions
What did Franz Joseph Gall propose?
the differences in character or ability are reflected in differences in the size of the corresponding parts of the cerebral cortex
What technique did Franz Jospeh Gull develop?
Phrenology
How is phrenology done?
skull measurements to predict an individual’s personality and abilities
What is structural neuroimaging?
modern techniques for creating pictures of anatomical structures within the brain are described collectively
What does structural neuroimaging show?
Images produced using these methods can show details of brain tissue and also brain lesions, areas of damage
What is Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)?
a method of structural neuroimaging based on recording changes in magnetic fields
what is diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)?
a type of MRI that measures connections between brain regions
The prototypical neurons have three main components what are they?
Dendrites
cell body
axons
What are dendrites?
input areas that receive signals from other neurons
What are cell body?
integrates signals from dendrites
What are axons
transmit signals to other neurons
What is Glia?
cells of various types that provide functional or structural support to neurons; some contribute to changes in connections between neurons
What are astrocytes?
glia that line the outer surface of blood vessels in the brain
What are oligodendrocytes?
wrap axons of nearby neurons in myelin
What is myelin?
a fatty substance that insulates electrical signals transmitted by neurons
Who is William James?
proposed that the links created during learning and memory formation are not just conceptual connections but actual, physical properties of brains
What did William James believe about plasticity?
That the plasticity of brain tissue is what makes learning possible
What is imprinting?
unique case of learning that has proven particularly informative, in which a newborn animal forms a lifelong attachment to whatever movements it views early on
What does imprinting involve?
elements of classical conditioning, perpetual learning, recognition memory, and operant conditioning
What is classical conditioning?
Type of learning that happens unconsciously, where a two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response
What is operant conditioning?
deliberate behaviours are reinforced through consequences
What is perceptual learning?
when you extract information from your surrounding using your 5 senses
What is environmental enrichment?
providing more opportunities for learning, social interactions, and exercise
Early studies of brain structure in rats found that simply providing young rats with more opportunities for learning, social interactions, and exercise (called environmental enrichment) could lead to?
changes in their neurons
What can affect neural connectivity?
any physical change in neuron, or in the systems that support them
What is neural connectivity?
the connections between neurons through which brain systems interact
What is hebbian learning?
learning that involves strengthening connections between neurons that world together
Accoriding to Hebb, learning-related changes in connections between neurons are an?
automatic result of the neurons’ mutual activity and the brain’s capacity for structural plasticity
What determines how brain regions contribute to learning and memory processes?
Two major factors are the kinds of input a region revives and the kinds of output it produces
What is a reflex?
an involuntary and automatic response that is “hardwired” into a organism
What did Charles Sherrington concluded regarding “spinal reflexes”?
The such simple “spinal reflexes” can be combined into complex sequences of movements, and these reflexes are the building blocks of all behaviour
What is needed for a reflex?
eliciting stimulus and corresponding linked response
What is the specific region of the cerebral cortex specialised for light?
primary visual cortex (V1)
What is the specific region of the cerebral cortex specialised for sound?
primary auditory cortex (A1)
What is the specific region of the cerebral cortex specialised for sensation?
primary somatosensory cortex (S1)
What are specific regions of the cerebral cortex are for generating coordinated movements?
Primary motor cortex (M1)
What is the primary motor cortex (M1) specialised for?
processing the outputs that control movements
Where does the primary motor cortex (M1) get much of its input and is responsible for?
from the frontal lobe which are responsible for making high-level plans based on the present situation, past experience, and future goals.
What does functional neuroimaging allows researchers to look at?
the activity, or function, of a living brain
When a brain structure becomes active, does it require more or less oxygen? and does blood flow increase of decrease?
More oxygen and blood flow increases
What is the most commonly used functional neuroimaging technology?
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
What does fMRI focus on?
differences in oxygen levels in the blood
What is electroencephalography (EEG)?
a method for measuring electrical activity in the brain by means of electrodes placed on the scalp
What is the resulting image of electroencephalography called?
electroencephalogram
What are the two ways memory functions are affected?
by which neurons fire and also by how often they fire
What is neurophysiology?
the study of activity and functions of neurons
What is single-cell recording?
one technique scientists use to measure the firing patterns of individual neurons
How is single-cell recording done?
using an implanted electrode to detect electrical activity (spiking) in a single cell (such as a neuron)
What do two dominant research themes state regarding memory being stored?
that many memories are stored in the cerebral cortex and, more specifically, that they are stored in connections between cortical neurons
What did one of the earliest approaches researchers attempt on memories in the cerebral cortex examine?
examine people whose brains were missing pieces to see how such losses could affect performance
What os neuropsychology?
the branch of psychology that deals with the relationship between brain function and behaviour, usually bu examining the functioning of patients who have specific types of brain damage
Who is Karl Lashley?
looked for the location of the engram
What is the engram?
the supposed physical change in the brain that forms the basis of memory
What is engram also referred to as?
memory trace
How did Karl Lashley look for the engram? and what did it show?
a group of rats were trained to navigate a maze, and then a different small area of the cortex was removed in each rat.
no one cortical area seemed to be more important than any other
Who endured the theory of equipotentiality?
Karl Lashley
What is the theory of equipotentiality?
memories are not stored in one area of the brain; rather, the brain operates as a whole to store memories
What is a synapse?
gap where neurons pass chemicals
Communicated neurons are separated by a narrow gap of about 20 nanometers called a?
synapse
What is presynaptic neuron?
sending neuron
What is postsynaptic neuron?
receiving neuron
Where are most synapses formed?
formed between the axon of the presynaptic neuron and a dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron
Where are synapses lets commonly formed?
between an axon and a cell body, between an axon and another axon, and even between dendrites
What is a dendrite?
receiving part of the neuron
What are neurotransmitters?
chemical substances that can cross a synapse to affect the activity of a postsynaptic neuron
What are receptors?
molecule embedded in the surface of the postsynaptic neuron that are specialised to bind with and respond to particular kinds of neurotransmitters
Some neurotransmitters are excitatory, what does this mean?
activating receipts that tend to increase the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing
Some neurotransmitters are inhibitory, what does this mean?
activating receptors that tend to decrease the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing
What is a neruomodulator?
a neurotransmitter that acts to modulate activity in a large of number of neurons rather than in.a single synapse
Example of a neuromodulator?
acetylcholine
What is acetylcholine?
of ten functions as a neuromodulator, and on of its effects is temporary alter the number of receptors that must be active before a postsynaptic neuron can fire
What is synaptic plasticity?
the ability of synapses to change as a result of experience
What is Long-term potentiation (LTP)?
a process in which synaptic transmission becomes more effective as a result of recent activity
What is long-term depression (LTD)?
a process in which synaptic transmission becomes less effective as a results of recent activity
Researchers can use microelectrodes to stimulate?
neural activity by delivering tiny amounts of electrical current into the brain
Electrical stimulation of neurons was used as early as the 1800s to prove?
that neural activity in the motor cortex produces motor behaviour
What is homunculus?
a map that shows which parts of the body each subsection of Primary motor cortex (M1) controls
What can electrical stimulation generate?
generte movements, visual, auditory, and somatosensory sensations
What is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)?
changes activity in the cerebral cortex by generating strong magnetic pulses over the skull
TMS can be sued to modulate?
cortical activity
Another method for manipulating neural activity is the use of drugs, why?
Drugs that affect the brain generally change neural activity by altering synaptic transmission
