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PSYC 220 Principles of Learning > Chapter 2: The Neuroscience of Learning and Memory > Flashcards

Chapter 2: The Neuroscience of Learning and Memory Flashcards

1
Q

What is neuroscience?

A

The study of brain and the rest of the nervous system

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2
Q

Historically, most early studies of learning and memory focus on?

A

observable behaviour rather than on the brain and how it functions

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3
Q

The brain is just one component of a collection of body organs called?

A

the nervous system

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4
Q

What is the nervous system?

A

the organ system devoted to the distribution to the distribution and processing of signals that affect biological functions throughout the body

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5
Q

What is the Central nervous System (CNS)?

A

the part of the vertebrate nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord

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6
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

A

The part of the nervous system that transmits signals from sensory receptors to the CNS and carries commands from the CNS to muscles

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7
Q

What is a neuron?

A

a special type of cell that is one of the main competes of the nervous system

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8
Q

What are the 5 main nervous system components?

A
  1. CNS
  2. PNS
  3. Sensory Organs
  4. Muscles
  5. Body Organs
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9
Q

What neurons do PNS consist of?

A

consists of motor and sensory neurons that connect the brain to the spinal cord to the rest of the body

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10
Q

What are the 6 visible surfaces of the human brain?

A
  1. Frontal Lobe
  2. Parietal Lobe
  3. Temporal Lobe
  4. Occipital Lobe
  5. Brainstem
  6. Cerebellum
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11
Q

Where is the cerebral cortex located?

A

The brain tissue covering top and sides of the brain in most vertebrates

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12
Q

What is the cerebral cortex responsible for?

A

involved in storage and processing of sensory inputs and motor outputs

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13
Q

Where is the frontal lobe located?

A

FRONT

The part of the cerebral cortex lying at the front of the human brain

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14
Q

What is the purpose of the frontal lobe?

A

Enables a person to plan and perform actions

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15
Q

Where is the parietal lobe located?

A

TOP/PEAK

The part of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the human brain

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16
Q

What it the parietal lobe’s purpose?

A

important for processing somatosensory inputs

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17
Q

What is somatosensory?

A

touch

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18
Q

Where is the temporal lobe located?

A

SIDES

the part of the cerebral cortex lying at the sides of the human brain

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19
Q

What is the temporal lobe’s purpose?

A

Important for language and auditory processing and for learning new facts and forming new memories

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20
Q

Where is the occipital lobe located?

A

BACK

the part of the cerebral cortex lying at the rear of the human brain

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21
Q

What is the occipital lobe’s purpose?

A

Important for visual processing

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22
Q

Where is the cerebellum located?

A

A brain region lying below the cerebral cortex in the back of the head

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23
Q

What is the cerebellum’s purpose?

A

Responsible for the regulation and coordination of complex voluntary muscular movement, including classical conditioning of motor-reflex responses

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24
Q

Where is the brainstem?

A

a group of structure that connects the rest of the brain to the spinal cord

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25
Q

What is the brainstem’s purpose?

A

plays a key role in regulating automatic functions such as breathing and body temperature

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26
Q

Where are the 4 brain regions known to contribute to memory?

A

located near the centre of the brain

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27
Q

What are the 4 brain regions known to contribute to memory?

A

basal ganglia
thalamus
hippocampus
amygdala

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28
Q

Who is Franz Joseph Gall?

A

pioneered the idea that different areas of the cerebral cortex are specialised for different functions

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29
Q

What did Franz Joseph Gall propose?

A

the differences in character or ability are reflected in differences in the size of the corresponding parts of the cerebral cortex

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30
Q

What technique did Franz Jospeh Gull develop?

A

Phrenology

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31
Q

How is phrenology done?

A

skull measurements to predict an individual’s personality and abilities

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32
Q

What is structural neuroimaging?

A

modern techniques for creating pictures of anatomical structures within the brain are described collectively

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33
Q

What does structural neuroimaging show?

A

Images produced using these methods can show details of brain tissue and also brain lesions, areas of damage

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34
Q

What is Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)?

A

a method of structural neuroimaging based on recording changes in magnetic fields

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35
Q

what is diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)?

A

a type of MRI that measures connections between brain regions

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36
Q

The prototypical neurons have three main components what are they?

A

Dendrites
cell body
axons

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37
Q

What are dendrites?

A

input areas that receive signals from other neurons

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38
Q

What are cell body?

A

integrates signals from dendrites

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39
Q

What are axons

A

transmit signals to other neurons

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40
Q

What is Glia?

A

cells of various types that provide functional or structural support to neurons; some contribute to changes in connections between neurons

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41
Q

What are astrocytes?

A

glia that line the outer surface of blood vessels in the brain

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42
Q

What are oligodendrocytes?

A

wrap axons of nearby neurons in myelin

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43
Q

What is myelin?

A

a fatty substance that insulates electrical signals transmitted by neurons

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44
Q

Who is William James?

A

proposed that the links created during learning and memory formation are not just conceptual connections but actual, physical properties of brains

45
Q

What did William James believe about plasticity?

A

That the plasticity of brain tissue is what makes learning possible

46
Q

What is imprinting?

A

unique case of learning that has proven particularly informative, in which a newborn animal forms a lifelong attachment to whatever movements it views early on

47
Q

What does imprinting involve?

A

elements of classical conditioning, perpetual learning, recognition memory, and operant conditioning

48
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

Type of learning that happens unconsciously, where a two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response

49
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

deliberate behaviours are reinforced through consequences

50
Q

What is perceptual learning?

A

when you extract information from your surrounding using your 5 senses

51
Q

What is environmental enrichment?

A

providing more opportunities for learning, social interactions, and exercise

52
Q

Early studies of brain structure in rats found that simply providing young rats with more opportunities for learning, social interactions, and exercise (called environmental enrichment) could lead to?

A

changes in their neurons

53
Q

What can affect neural connectivity?

A

any physical change in neuron, or in the systems that support them

54
Q

What is neural connectivity?

A

the connections between neurons through which brain systems interact

55
Q

What is hebbian learning?

A

learning that involves strengthening connections between neurons that world together

56
Q

Accoriding to Hebb, learning-related changes in connections between neurons are an?

A

automatic result of the neurons’ mutual activity and the brain’s capacity for structural plasticity

57
Q

What determines how brain regions contribute to learning and memory processes?

A

Two major factors are the kinds of input a region revives and the kinds of output it produces

58
Q

What is a reflex?

A

an involuntary and automatic response that is “hardwired” into a organism

59
Q

What did Charles Sherrington concluded regarding “spinal reflexes”?

A

The such simple “spinal reflexes” can be combined into complex sequences of movements, and these reflexes are the building blocks of all behaviour

60
Q

What is needed for a reflex?

A

eliciting stimulus and corresponding linked response

61
Q

What is the specific region of the cerebral cortex specialised for light?

A

primary visual cortex (V1)

62
Q

What is the specific region of the cerebral cortex specialised for sound?

A

primary auditory cortex (A1)

63
Q

What is the specific region of the cerebral cortex specialised for sensation?

A

primary somatosensory cortex (S1)

64
Q

What are specific regions of the cerebral cortex are for generating coordinated movements?

A

Primary motor cortex (M1)

65
Q

What is the primary motor cortex (M1) specialised for?

A

processing the outputs that control movements

66
Q

Where does the primary motor cortex (M1) get much of its input and is responsible for?

A

from the frontal lobe which are responsible for making high-level plans based on the present situation, past experience, and future goals.

67
Q

What does functional neuroimaging allows researchers to look at?

A

the activity, or function, of a living brain

68
Q

When a brain structure becomes active, does it require more or less oxygen? and does blood flow increase of decrease?

A

More oxygen and blood flow increases

69
Q

What is the most commonly used functional neuroimaging technology?

A

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

70
Q

What does fMRI focus on?

A

differences in oxygen levels in the blood

71
Q

What is electroencephalography (EEG)?

A

a method for measuring electrical activity in the brain by means of electrodes placed on the scalp

72
Q

What is the resulting image of electroencephalography called?

A

electroencephalogram

73
Q

What are the two ways memory functions are affected?

A

by which neurons fire and also by how often they fire

74
Q

What is neurophysiology?

A

the study of activity and functions of neurons

75
Q

What is single-cell recording?

A

one technique scientists use to measure the firing patterns of individual neurons

76
Q

How is single-cell recording done?

A

using an implanted electrode to detect electrical activity (spiking) in a single cell (such as a neuron)

77
Q

What do two dominant research themes state regarding memory being stored?

A

that many memories are stored in the cerebral cortex and, more specifically, that they are stored in connections between cortical neurons

78
Q

What did one of the earliest approaches researchers attempt on memories in the cerebral cortex examine?

A

examine people whose brains were missing pieces to see how such losses could affect performance

79
Q

What os neuropsychology?

A

the branch of psychology that deals with the relationship between brain function and behaviour, usually bu examining the functioning of patients who have specific types of brain damage

80
Q

Who is Karl Lashley?

A

looked for the location of the engram

81
Q

What is the engram?

A

the supposed physical change in the brain that forms the basis of memory

82
Q

What is engram also referred to as?

A

memory trace

83
Q

How did Karl Lashley look for the engram? and what did it show?

A

a group of rats were trained to navigate a maze, and then a different small area of the cortex was removed in each rat.

no one cortical area seemed to be more important than any other

84
Q

Who endured the theory of equipotentiality?

A

Karl Lashley

85
Q

What is the theory of equipotentiality?

A

memories are not stored in one area of the brain; rather, the brain operates as a whole to store memories

86
Q

What is a synapse?

A

gap where neurons pass chemicals

87
Q

Communicated neurons are separated by a narrow gap of about 20 nanometers called a?

A

synapse

88
Q

What is presynaptic neuron?

A

sending neuron

89
Q

What is postsynaptic neuron?

A

receiving neuron

90
Q

Where are most synapses formed?

A

formed between the axon of the presynaptic neuron and a dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron

91
Q

Where are synapses lets commonly formed?

A

between an axon and a cell body, between an axon and another axon, and even between dendrites

92
Q

What is a dendrite?

A

receiving part of the neuron

93
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

chemical substances that can cross a synapse to affect the activity of a postsynaptic neuron

94
Q

What are receptors?

A

molecule embedded in the surface of the postsynaptic neuron that are specialised to bind with and respond to particular kinds of neurotransmitters

95
Q

Some neurotransmitters are excitatory, what does this mean?

A

activating receipts that tend to increase the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing

96
Q

Some neurotransmitters are inhibitory, what does this mean?

A

activating receptors that tend to decrease the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing

97
Q

What is a neruomodulator?

A

a neurotransmitter that acts to modulate activity in a large of number of neurons rather than in.a single synapse

98
Q

Example of a neuromodulator?

A

acetylcholine

99
Q

What is acetylcholine?

A

of ten functions as a neuromodulator, and on of its effects is temporary alter the number of receptors that must be active before a postsynaptic neuron can fire

100
Q

What is synaptic plasticity?

A

the ability of synapses to change as a result of experience

101
Q

What is Long-term potentiation (LTP)?

A

a process in which synaptic transmission becomes more effective as a result of recent activity

102
Q

What is long-term depression (LTD)?

A

a process in which synaptic transmission becomes less effective as a results of recent activity

103
Q

Researchers can use microelectrodes to stimulate?

A

neural activity by delivering tiny amounts of electrical current into the brain

104
Q

Electrical stimulation of neurons was used as early as the 1800s to prove?

A

that neural activity in the motor cortex produces motor behaviour

105
Q

What is homunculus?

A

a map that shows which parts of the body each subsection of Primary motor cortex (M1) controls

106
Q

What can electrical stimulation generate?

A

generte movements, visual, auditory, and somatosensory sensations

107
Q

What is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)?

A

changes activity in the cerebral cortex by generating strong magnetic pulses over the skull

108
Q

TMS can be sued to modulate?

A

cortical activity

109
Q

Another method for manipulating neural activity is the use of drugs, why?

A

Drugs that affect the brain generally change neural activity by altering synaptic transmission

PSYC 220 Principles of Learning (5 decks)

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