o When using a fixed frame, the director creates the illusion of depth by filming the subject moving toward or away from the camera, either head-on or diagonally. Purely lateral movement, perpendicular to the direction in which the camera is aimed, creates a two- dimensional effect and, to avoid a flat image, should be minimized.
o 2 Movement of Camera. A camera mounted on a truck or dolly may create the illusion of depth by moving toward or away from a relatively static object. As it passes by or goes around objects, we become more aware of the depth of the image. Because the camera eye actually moves, the objects on both sides of its path constantly change their position relative to one another. The change varies according to the changing angles from which the moving camera views them. Director Allan Dwan describes this illusion: “To get the real effect of a dolly at any time, you have to pass something…. If you dolly past a tree, it seems to revolve. It turns around. It isn’t flat anymore. But stand still and photograph a tree and it’s just a flat tree.
o 3 Apparent Camera Movement (Zoom Lens). By magnifying the image, the zoom lens gives us the sensation of moving closer to or farther from the camera. Not surprisingly, the zoom lens may also be used to create the illusion of depth. But because camera position does not change during zooming, there is no real change in perspective. The objects to the sides do not change their position in relation to one another as they do when the camera moves. For this reason, a zoom lens does not create the illusion of depth quite as effectively as a mobile camera.
o 4 Change of Focal Planes (Rack Focus). Most cameras, including still cameras, are designed to focus on objects at different distances from the lens. Because the eye is ordinarily drawn to what it can see best–that is, to the object in sharpest focus–the cinematographer can create a kind of three- dimensionality by using rack focus–in one continuous shot focusing the camera lens, in turn, on objects in different planes of depth (different distances from the camera). If the frame includes three faces, all at different distances from the camera, the cinematographer may first focus on the nearest face and then, while the shot continues, focus on the second face and then on the third, thus, in effect, creating the illusion of depth within the frame (Figure 5.18).
o 5 Deep Focus. In direct contrast to the change in focal planes is deep focus– the use of special lenses that allow the camera to focus simultaneously and usually with equal clarity on objects anywhere from two feet to several hundred feet away. This depth of focus approximates most clearly the ability of the human eye to see a deep range of objects in clear focus (Figure 5.19). The sustained use of this technique has a profound effect on the way the audience views the dramatic action. Writing about cinematographer Gregg Toland’s use of deep focus in Citizen Kane, Frank Brady explains:
o 6 Three-Dimensional Arrangement of People and Objects. Perhaps the most important consideration in creating a three-dimensional image is how to arrange the people and objects to be filmed. If they are placed in separate focal planes, the cinematographer has a truly three-dimensional scene to photograph. Without such an arrangement, there is no real purpose for the various effects and techniques described above
o Foreground Framing. A three-dimensional effect is also achieved when a shot is set up so that the subject is framed by an object or objects in the near foreground. When the object that forms the frame is in focus, a strong sense of three-dimensionality is achieved. When the foreground frame is thrown out of focus, or seen in very soft focus, the three-dimensional effect is weakened somewhat but not lost, and the entire mood or atmosphere of the scene changes
o 8 Special Lighting Effects. By carefully controlling the angle, direction, intensity, and quality of the lighting, the director can further add to the illusion of depth (Figure 5.22). Occasionally, the director may even control the source and direction of the lighting for the purpose of expanding the limits of the frame. By positioning the light source out of camera range–to either side of, or behind, the camera–the filmmaker can cause the shadows of objects outside the frame to fall inside the frame, thus suggesting the presence of those objects. When these shadows come from objects behind the camera, they can add greatly to the three-dimensionality of the shot
o 9 Use of Reflections. Directors also make imaginative use of reflections to create a sense of depth and pack additional information into a frame
