Chapter 5, Chapter 6, Chapter 7, Chapter 8 Flashcards
The processing of basic information from the external world via receptors in the sense organs (eyes, ears, skins, etc.) and brain
Sensation
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information
Perception
the sharpness and clarity of vision
Visual acuity
a method for studying visual attention in infants that involves showing infants two images simultaneously to see if the infants prefer one over the other
Preferential-looking technique
the ability to detect differences in light and dark areas in a visual pattern
the ability to detect differences in light and dark areas in a visual pattern Contrast sensitivity
light-sensitive neurons that are highly concentrated in the fovea (central region of the retina)
Cone cells
Infants like looking at high contrast patterns
True
visual behavior in which the viewer’s gaze shifts at the same rate and angle as a moving object
Smooth pursuit eye movements
the perception of objects as being of constant size, shape, color, etc. in spite of physical differences in the retinal image of the object
Perceptual constancy
the identification of separate objects in a visual array
Object segregation
a procedure used to study infant cognition in which infants are shown an event that should evoke surprise or interest if goes against something the infant knows
Violation-of-expectancy
a depth cue in which an object occludes increasingly more of the background, indicating that the object is approaching
Optical expansion
The difference between the retinal image of an object in each eye that results in two slightly different signals being sent to the brain
Binocular disparity
the process by which the visual cortex combines the differing neural signals caused by binocular disparity, resulting in the perception of depth
Stereopsis
the perceptual cues of depth (such as relative size and interposition) that can be perceived by one eye alone
Monocular depth cues
the perception of the spatial location of a sound source
Auditory localization
developmental changes in which experience fine-tunes the perceptual system
Perceptual narrowing
the combing of information from two or more sensory system
Intermodal perception
fixed patterns of action that occur in response to particular stimulation
Reflexes
turning of the head and opening of the mouth in the direction of a touch (happens when an infant is hungry)
Rooting
oral response when the roof of the mouth is stimulated
Sucking/Swallowing
when the head turns or is positioned to one side, the arms on that side of the body extends, while the arm and knee on the other side flex
Tonic Neck
throwing back the head and extending the arms, then rapidly drawing them in, in response to a loud, sound, or sudden movement
Moro
closing the fingers around an object that is pressed to the palm
Grasping
stepping or dancing with the feet when being held upright with feet touching a solid surface
Stepping
the possibilities for action, offered, or afforded, by objects and situations
Affordances
clumsy swiping movements by young infants toward objects they see
Pre-reaching movements
the ability to move oneself around in the environment
Self-locomotion
the attempt by a young child to perform an acton on a miniature object that is impossible due to the large discrepancy in the relative sizes of the child and the object
Scale-error
a form of learning that consists of associating an initially neutral stimulus with a stimulus that always evokes a particular reflexive response
CC
a stimulus that evokes a reflexive response (nipple in the infant’s mouth)
UCS
a reflexive response that is elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (sucking reflex)
UCR
the natural stimulus that is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (breast or bottle). Repeatedly occurs just before the UCS
CS
the originally reflexive response that comes to be elicited by the CS (the sight of the bottle or breast has become a signal of what will follow)
CR
learning the relation between one’s own behavior and the consequences that result from it
Operant Conditioning
a reward that reliably follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated
Positive Reinforcement
the ability to use prior experiences to predict what will occur in the future
Rational Learning
learning by engaging with the world, rather than passively observing objects and events
Active Learning
systems for represent our thoughts, feelings, and knowledge, and for communicating them to other people
Symbols
understanding what others say (or sign or write)
Language Comprehension
the process of speaking (or signing or writing)
Language Production
a system in which a finite set of words can be combined to generate an infinite number of sentences
Generative
smallest units of meaningful sound (rake vs lake) r vs l sound
Phonemes
the smallest units of meaning in a language (dog vs dogs)
Morphemes
rules specifying how sounds from different categories (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.) can be combined
Syntax
knowledge about how language is used
Pragmatics
the distinctive mode of speech used when speaking to infants and toddlers
IDS
the characteristic rhythm and intonational patterns with which a language is spoken
Prosody
the perception of phonemes as belonging to discrete categories
Categorical Perception
the length of time between when air passes through the lips and when the vocal cords start vibrating
Voice Onset Time
discovering where words begin and end in fluent speech
Word Segmentation
ahhhh or ooohhhh (6-10 weeks)
Cooing
papa, dadada, bobobo, (6-10 months)
Babbling
(10-15 months) wabbit or bubba
First Word
(20-22 months) Give food, John go (simple sentences) short utterances that leave out non-essential words
Telegraphic Speech
(30 months) Mommy go to work.
Full Sentences
an overly broad interpretation of the meaning of a word
Overextension
an overly narrow interpretation of the meaning of a word
Underextension
aspects of the social context used for word learning
Pragmatic Cues
determine word meanings by tracking the correlations between labels and meanings across scenes and contexts
Cross situation word learning
the strategy of using grammatical structure to infer the meaning of a new word
Syntactic Bootstrapping
speech erros in which children treat irregular forms of words as if they were regular. e.g. I eated the pie.
Overregularization
Conversation between children that involves a series of non sequiturs
Collective monologue
story-like structured descriptions of past events
Narratives
a proposed set of highly abstract structures that are common to all languages
Universal Grammar
a computation modeling approach that emphasizes that simultaneous activity of numerous interconnected processing units
Connectionism
treating a symbolic artifact both as a real object and as a symbol for something other than itself
Dual representation
General ideas or understandings that can be used to group together objects, events qualities or abstractions that are similar in some way
Concepts
A category that is organized by set-subset relations such as animal/dog/poodle
Category hierarchy
The grouping together of objects that have similar appearances
Perceptual categorization
The general level within a category hierarchy such as “animal” in the animal/dog/poodle example
Superordinate level
The middle level, and often the first level learned, within a category hierarchy (“dog”)
Basic level
The most specific level within a category hierarchy (“Poodle”)
Subordinate level
A commonsense level of understanding of other people and oneself
Naïve Psychology
An organized understanding of how mental processes such as intentions, desires, perceptions, and emotions influence behavior
nt of mind
Tasks that test a child’s understanding that other people will act in accord with their own beliefs even when the child knows that those beliefs are incorrect
False-belief problems
A hypothesized brain mechanism devoted to understanding other human beings
TOMM
Make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they are in a situation different from their actual one
Pretend play
A form of pretense in which an object is used as something other than itself, for example, using a broom to represent a horse
Object substitution
Activities in which children enact miniature dramas with other children or adults, such as “mother” comforting baby
Sociodramatic play
The view that living things have an essence inside them that makes them what they are
Essentialism
Coding of spatial locations relative to one’s own body, without regard to the surroundings
Egocentric spatial representations
The realization that all sets of N objects have something in common
Numerical equality
Cognitive processes that influence the ability to think and learn on all intellectual tasks
General intelligence (g)
Ability to think on the spot to solve novel problems
Fluid intelligence
Factual knowledge about the world
Crystalized Intelligence
Seven abilities proposed by Thurstone as crucial to intelligence
Primary mental abilities
Carroll’s model that places g at the top of the intelligence hierarchy, eight moderately general abilities in the middle, and many specific processes at the bottom
Three-stratum theory of intelligence
Widely used test designed to measure the intelligence of children ages 6 and up
WISC
A quantitative measure of a child’s intelligence relative to that of other children of the same age
IQ
Pattern of data in which scores fall symmetrically around a mean value, with Mose scores falling close to the mean and fewer and fewer scores farther from it
Normal distribution
Measure of the variability of scores in a distribution; 68% of scores fall within 1 SD of the mean, and 95% scores fall within 2 SD of the mean
SD
Ability to inhibit actions, follow rules, and avoid impulsive reactions
Self-discipline
Consistent rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the past 80 years in many countries
Flynn Effect
Comprehensive and successful enrichment program for children form low-income families
CAP
Gardner’s theory of intellect, based on the view that people posses at least eight types of intelligence
Multiple intelligences theory
Sternberg’s theory of intellect, based on the view that intelligence is the ability to achieve success in life
Theory of successful intelligence
Ability to identify component sounds within words
Phonemic awareness
Ability to translate letters into sounds and to bleed sounds into words; informally called sounding out
Phonological recoding skills
Proceeding directly from the visual form of a word to its meaning
Visually based retrieval
Procedure for selecting among alternative ways to solve a problem
Strategy-choice process
Perspective that comprehension depends solely on decoding skill and comprehension of oral language
Simple view of reading
In ability to read and spell well despite having normal intelligence
Dyslexia
Cognitive processes used to represent a situation or sequence of events
Situational model
Process of keeping track of one’s understanding of a verbal description or text
Comprehension monitoring
Typical sequence of actions used to organized and interpret repeated events, such as eating at restaurants, going to doctors’ appointments, and writing reports
Script
Mental models of the sizes of numbers, ordered along a less-to more dimension
Numerical magnitude representations
Concept that the values of each side of the equal sign must be equivalent
Mathematical equality
Phenomenon in which hand movements and verbal statements convey different ideas
Gesture-speech mismatches
How do researchers test whether infants perceive the boundaries between objects?
They present two objects to the infant to see if they look at one longer.
Most children are able to sit without support by about the age of
8 months
Hattie smiles and claps every time her mother gets out the bag of goldfish because she knows this means it is almost snack time. This is an example of:
Classical Conditioning
The words “dog” and “cat” contain one _______ and three _________.
morpheme and phonemes
Which of the following is not true about children how grow up learning two languages?
Bilingual children always prefer one language over the other.
An example of telegraphic speech would be:
eat banana or give juice
Newborn infants’ visual acuity is so poor that:
they prefer to focus on areas of high contrast.
Newborns prefer toys with high contrast (for example, a large black and white pattern) because…
their ability to see fine details is poor
Chomsky’s theory of universal grammar was most consistent with which perspective of development?
Natavists
Chomsky’s theory of universal grammar was most consistent with which perspective of development?
Natavists
Kyle shows his father a picture he made and tells him that it shows the time they went to the zoo and saw the tiger, but when his father looks at the picture it is only a bunch of scribbles. Kyle is likely how old?
2 years
Which of the following is a way that children’s categorizations are different than adults?
Children use more general categories like dinosaurs while adults use more specific categories like herbivores and carnivores.
Why is the development of theory of mind important?
It helps children take the perspective of someone else.
Which of the following is not true about children’s understanding of different concepts?
Infants understand that DNA is the way that traits are passed from parents to children.
Children’s novel forms like, “I petted the bunny,” illustrate that:
human language has the property of generativity
Peter’s preschool teacher asks him what he did over the weekend. Peter responds, “I eated pizza at my birthday party.” Peter’s speech includes an example of:
overregularization
How many possible sentences are there?
INFINITE AMOUNT
What letter is used to represent general intelligence?
g
Which of the following is a use of fluid intelligence?
Knowing how to complete a puzzle you have not encountered before.
Would an intelligence test for a 6-year-old look different from an intelligence test for a 12-year-old?
Yes, because intelligence tests measure children’s abilities at different ages.
Why is it important for parents to read at home with their children?
All of the above.
Ella is nervous about her math test because she thinks she is bad at math. What is the best thing Ella can do to counter her anxiety?
Write about her feelings before she takes the test
The fact that average IQ scores have consistently risen over the past 80 years represents which of the following?
Flynn Effect and Social influence on IQ
In the 1960s there was political consensus that public policies and government programs should focus on helping poor families, based on child development research suggesting that a child’s environment had significant effects on their cognitive growth. Which of the following is NOT an example of a policy or program developed with this goal in mind?
Sternberg’s intelligence program
Which of the following is not a type of intelligence represented in Gardner’s “multiple intelligence theory”?
Emotional Intelligence
In Freud’s theory, areas of the body that become erotically sensitive in successive stages of development
Erogenous zones
In psychoanalytic theory, the earliest and most primitive personality structure. It is unconscious and operates with the goal of seeking pleasure
Id
The first stage in Freud’s theory, occurring in the first year, in which the primary source of satisfaction and pleasure is oral activity
Oral stage
In psychoanalytic theory, the second personality structure to develop. It is the rational, logical, problem-solving component of personality
Ego
The second stage in Freud’s theory, lasting from the second year through the third year, in which the primary source of pleasure comes from defecation
Anal stage
The third stage in Freud’s theory, lasting from age 3 to age 6, in which sexual pleasure is focused on the genitalia
Phallic stage
In psychoanalytic theory, the third personality structure, consisting of internalized moral standards
Superego
The fourth stage in Freud’s theory, lasting from age 6 to age 12, in which sexual energy gets channeled into socially acceptable activities
Latency period
The final stage in Freud’s theory, beginning in adolescence, in which sexual maturation is complete
Genital stage
Inconsistent response to a behavior; for example, sometimes punishing unacceptable behaviors and other times ignoring it
Intermittent Reinforcement
A form of therapy based on principles of operant conditioning in which reinforcement contingencies are changed to encourage more adaptive behavior
Behavior modification
Child-environment influences operate in both directions; children are both affected by and influence aspects of their environment
Reciprocal determinism
Observing someone else receive a reward or punishment
Vicarious reinforcement
The idea that children play a very active role in their own socialization through their activity preferences, friendship choices, and so on
Self-socialization
Being aware of the perspective of another person
Role taking
In Dodge’s theory, the tendency to assume that other people’s ambiguous actions stem from hostile intent
Hostile attributional bias
Reefers to whether children are motivated by mastery or by others’ views of their success
Achievement Motivation
A tendency to attribute success and failure to enduring aspects of the self and to give up in the face of failure
Entity/helpless orientation
A general tendency to attribute success and failure to the amount of effort expended and to persist in the face of failure
Incremental/mastery orientation
A theory that a person’s level of intelligence is fixed and unchangeable
Entity theory
A theory that a person’s intelligence can grow as a function of experience
Incremental theory
The study of the evolutionary bases of behavior
Ethology
A form of learning in which the newborns of some species become attached to and follow adult members of the species
Imprinting
A theory that stresses the evolutionary basis of many aspects of parental behavior that benefit their offspring
Parental-investment theory
The immediate environment that an individual child personally experiences and participates in
Microsystem
The interconnections among immediate, or microsystem, settings
Mesosystem
Environmental settings that a child does not directly experience but that can affect the child indirectly
Exosystem
The larger cultural and social context within which the other systems are embedded
Macrosystem
Historical changes that influence the other systems
Chronosystem
A syndrome that involves difficulty in sustaining attention
ADHD
Who said that the new born’s world is a big blooming, buzzing confusion
William James
What were Fantz’s conclusions
Infants like losing at something and if two objects are paired next to each other, infants like to look at an object that has patterns on it
Look primarily at the other contour of face/head, a few fixations on the eyes
1-month-old
Fixates primarily on internal features of the face
2-month-old
What do infants do before they can babble?
The infant fixates on the speaker’s eyes
What do infants look at once they can babble?
The infant stares on the speaker’s mouth (Bilinguals do this earlier)
What do 1 month old infants do when an object is approaching them?
They blink
McGurk Effect
Example of intermodal perception (visual-auditory)
A decrease in response after repeated exposure
Habituation
detecting statistical patterns within the environment
Statistical Learning
By 5 most children have mastered basic structure of their native language
True
90% of people right-handed and language is primarily represented in the left hemisphere
Brain lateralization
Non-human primates trained to use human communication
Washoe Chimps
