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Biology > Chapter 5: Cell Division [COMPLETE] > Flashcards

Chapter 5: Cell Division [COMPLETE] Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what does the cell theory say about cell division?

A

that all cells arise from pre-existing cells through cell division

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2
Q

genome

A

all the DNA in a cell

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3
Q

chromosomes

A

separate DNA molecules that
make up the entire genome

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4
Q

homologous chromosome pairs

A

two different versions of the same chromosome number; one is inherited from mother and one from father

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5
Q

sister chromatids

A

identical, attached copies of a single chromosome that form dyads

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6
Q

dyads

A

replicated chromosomes containing two sister chromatids that look like an “X”

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7
Q

centromeres

A

regions of DNA that connect sister chromatids in a dyad

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8
Q

kinetochores

A

proteins on the sides of
centromeres that help microtubules pull sister chromatids apart during cell division

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9
Q

karyokinesis

A

division of the nucleus

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10
Q

cytokinesis

A

physical division of the
cytoplasm and cell membrane

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11
Q

what does 1 parent cell produce after division?

A

2 daughter cells

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12
Q

ploidy

A

describes the number of chromosome sets found in the body

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13
Q

why are humans diploid?

A

because they contain two sets of chromosomes (46 chromosomes, 23 pairs), one from each parent

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14
Q

besides diploid, what other cells do humans have? what is their other name and how many chromosomes?

A

haploid cells (gametes) that only contain one chromosome set (23 chromosomes)

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15
Q

how many pairs of sex chromosomes are there in the body? what do they determine?

A

one pair in the human body; they determine sex

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16
Q

what are autosomes and how many pairs are in the body?

A

they are nonsex chromosomes; 22 pairs in the body

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17
Q

gametes

A

haploid cells (sperm and eggs)

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18
Q

germ cells

A

diploid cells that divide by meiosis to produce gametes

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19
Q

gametocyte

A

eukaryotic germ cells that can either divide to form more gametocytes or produce gametes

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20
Q

somatic cells

A

all body cells excluding the
gametes; diploid in humans

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21
Q

what are the two main phases of the cell cycle, and which phase includes G1, G0, S, and G2?

A

interphase and M phase; interphase

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22
Q

what percentage of the cell cycle takes place during interphase, and what follows interphase in the cell cycle?

A

90%; mitosis and meiosis

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23
Q

during which phase of the cell cycle does karyokinesis and cytokinesis occur?

A

M phase

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24
Q

what is the bootcamp mnemonic that helps remember the key phases of the cell cycle?

A

Go = Gap Phase 1 (G1) of interphase
Sam = Synthesis Phase (S) of interphase
Go = Gap Phase 2 (G2) of interphase
Make = Mitosis of the M phase
Cake = Cytokinesis of the M phase

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25
Q

what happens during Gap phase 1 (G1) of the cell cycle?

A

cell grows in preparation for cell division; also checks for favorable conditions

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26
Q

what happens to the cells in G1 if favorable?

A

the cell will enter the S phase

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27
Q

what happens to the cells in G1 if unfavorable?

A

the cell will enter G0 phase

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28
Q

what occurs in the G0 phase of the cell cycle?

A

cells still carry out their functions but cells that do not divide are stuck here

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29
Q

what occurs during the Synthesis phase (S) of interphase, and what happens to centrosomes here?

A

cell replicates its genome here and moves to G2 phase when completed; centrosome duplicates

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30
Q

what occurs during the G2 phase of interphase? what is replicated here?

A

cell continues to grow and prepare for cell division by checking DNA for any errors after replication; organelles are replicated here

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31
Q

in addition to checking DNA for errors, what else do cells in G2 phase check for?

A

mitosis promoting factor (MPF) aka maturation PF, there must be an adequate amount for cell cycle to continue

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32
Q

where are Microtubule Organizing Centers (MTOCs) present in and what do they function in? what is it made of?

A

MTOCs are present in eukaryotic cells; they organize extension of microtubules, which are made of the protein tubulin

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33
Q

what are MTOCs responsible for forming?

A

the spindle apparatus

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34
Q

what does the spindle apparatus do?

A

guides chromosomes during karyokinesis

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35
Q

what are centrosomes and where are they found?

A

organelles that contain a pair of centrioles; found in animal cells

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36
Q

what do centrosomes act as?

A

MTOCs

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37
Q

what are the microtubules types in the spindle apparatus?

A

kinetochore, astral, and polar

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38
Q

where do kinetochore microtubules extend from and attach to?

A

extend from centrosomes and attach to kinetochores on chromosomes

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39
Q

where do astral microtubules extend from and attach to? why?

A

extend from centrosomes to the cell membrane to orient the spindle apparatus

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40
Q

where do polar microtubules extend from and attach to? why?

A

extend from the two centrosomes and connect with each other; they push centrosomes to opposite ends of the cell

41
Q

what is the structural composition of centrioles, and how is it arranged?

A

they are hollow cylinders made of nine triplets of microtubules; (9x3 array)

42
Q

Where are centrosomes typically located within a cell, and what is the orientation of the pair of centrioles found within a centrosome? what are they attached by?

A

near the nucleus; 90 degree angles to one another (attached to each other by interconnecting fibers)

43
Q

where do centrosomes replicate and why?

A

during the S phase of the cell cycle so that each daughter cell after cell division has one centrosome

44
Q

what material surrounds the centrioles and what is it responsible for?

A

pericentriolar material; responsible for microtubule nucleation (initiates the tubulin to start microtubule extension/production)

45
Q

what is the structure and array of cilia and flagella?

A

nine doublets of microtubules with two singles in the center (9+2 array)

46
Q

what are cilia and flagella produced by?

A

a basal body, which is initially formed by the mother centriole attaching itself to the cell membrane

47
Q

what is karyokinesis?

A

nuclear division

48
Q

what is mitosis (type) and what does it involve?

A

a type of karyokinesis; involves a diploid parent cell dividing into two diploid daughter cells

49
Q

what are the four phases of mitosis?

A

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

50
Q

what occurs in prophase and what structural changes occur?

A

chromatin condenses into chromosomes (X-shaped dyads); the nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear, spindle apparatus forms

51
Q

what occurs in prometaphase?

A

the nuclear envelope fragments, and spindle apparatus microtubules attach to the kinetochores of chromosomes

52
Q

what occurs in metaphase?

A

the spindle apparatus guides the chromosomes to the metaphase plate (midpoint of cell) in a single file

53
Q

what occurs in anaphase? what happens to chromosome number?

A

kinetochore microtubules shorten to pull sister chromatids apart, then, sister chromatids are considered separate chromosomes; chromosome number doubles

54
Q

what occurs in telophase and what structural changes occur?

A

chromosomes segregate and nuclear membranes reform; nucleoli reappear and chromosomes decondense into chromatin; only eukaryotic cell DNA is organized into chromatin

55
Q

what is cytokinesis?

A

the physical separation of the cytoplasm and cell membrane into two daughter cells

56
Q

when does cytokinesis begin in animal cells?

A

begins in late anaphase with the formation of a cleavage furrow

57
Q

what is the cleavage furrow?

A

a contractile ring of actin microfilaments and myosin motors that pinches the cell into two

58
Q

when does cytokinesis begin in plant cells?

A

in telophase with the formation of a cell plate

59
Q

what is the cell plate created by and what does is produce?

A

vesicles from the Golgi apparatus; middle lamella (which cements plant cells together)

60
Q

how does the cell cycle influence cell division?

A

by having limitations and regulations to its growth to prevent cancerous growth

61
Q

what are the two functional limitations of cell division?

A

surface to volume ratio (S/V), and genome to volume ratio (G/V)

62
Q

surface to volume ratio (S/V)

A

cell division occurs when volume is too large because cells rely on the surface area of their cell membrane transport material; decrease in S/V ratio leads to cell division

63
Q

genome to volume ratio (G/V)

A

cell division occurs when the volume of the cell is too large to be supported by the limited size of the genome; decrease in G/V ratio leads to cell division

64
Q

what are the cell specific regulations of cell division?

A

cell specific checkpoints, cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), growth factors, density dependent inhibition, and anchorage dependence

65
Q

[cell specific regulations] Cell specific checkpoints (G1 restriction point)

A

checks for favorable conditions to grow, enters G0 phase if unfavorable

66
Q

Cell specific checkpoints (end of G2)

A

checks accuracy of DNA replication and MPF levels

67
Q

Cell specific checkpoints (M checkpoint)

A

during metaphase, checks for chromosomal attachment to spindle fibers

68
Q

[cell specific regulations]
cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)

A

CDKs phosphorylate certain substrates to signal cell cycle progression; activated by cyclin

69
Q

what is cyclin?

A

a protein that cycles through stages of synthesis and degradation

70
Q

[cell specific regulations]
growth factors

A

bind to receptors in the plasma membrane to signal for cell division

71
Q

[cell specific regulations]
density dependent inhibition

A

halting of cell division when density of cells is high

72
Q

[cell specific regulations]
anchorage dependence

A

cells divide only when attached to an external surface

73
Q

why do organisms use mitosis?

A

to increase the number of cells in an organism

74
Q

what is binary fission used by and for what?

A

by archaea, bacteria, and certain organelles (mitochondria, chloroplasts) to reproduce

75
Q

what does binary fission lack?

A

spindle apparatus

76
Q

what do organisms do in binary fission?

A

replicate their genome while cell division is happening (no S phase for DNA replication)

77
Q

what does meiosis produce and from what?

A

produces four haploid daughter cells from one diploid parent cell

78
Q

how does meiosis produce four haploid daughter cells from one diploid parent cell?

A

by repeating the steps of karyokinesis twice

79
Q

what two phases can meiosis be divided into?

A

meiosis I (homologous chromosomes separate) and meiosis II (sister chromatids separate)

80
Q

what does meiosis I (reductional division) produce and through what?

A

produces two haploid daughter cells through separation of homologous chromosomes

81
Q

what occurs in prophase I and what structural changes occur?

A

chromatin condenses into chromosomes (X-shaped dyads); nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear; homologous chromosomes pair up and crossing over occurs

82
Q

[PROPHASE I] synapsis

A

the pairing up of homologous chromosomes to form tetrads (aka bivalents)

83
Q

[PROPHASE I] synaptonemal complex

A

protein structure that forms between homologous chromosomes during synapsis

84
Q

[PROPHASE I] tetrads (bivalents)

A

pair of two homologous chromosomes each with two sister chromatids

85
Q

[PROPHASE I] chiasmata

A

where two chromosomes of a homologous pair cross over during synapsis, causing genetic recombination

86
Q

[PROPHASE I] genetic recombination

A

exchange of DNA between chromosomes to produce genetically diverse offspring

87
Q

what occurs in metaphase I? what does this contribute to?

A

tetrads randomly line up double-file on the metaphase plate; this contributes to genetic diversity

88
Q

what occurs in anaphase I?

A

kinetochore microtubules shorten to separate homologous chromosomes from each other; will not begin unless at least one chiasmata has formed within each tetrad

89
Q

what occurs in telophase I and what structural changes occur?

A

after tetrads have been pulled to opposite poles, nuclear membranes reform; in addition, nucleoli reappear and chromosomes decondense into chromatin

90
Q

what occurs in cytokinesis I?

A

cleavage furrow forms in animal cells and a cell plate forms in plant cells

91
Q

what occurs in meiosis II and why is it similar to mitosis?

A

two haploid cells divide into four haploid daughter cells; similar to mitosis because sister chromatids are separated

92
Q

what occurs in prophase II and what structural changes occur?

A

chromatin condenses into chromosomes (X-shaped dyads), nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear, spindle apparatus forms, no crossing over occurs

93
Q

what occurs in metaphase II?

A

chromosomes line up single-file at the metaphase plate just like in mitosis

94
Q

what occurs in anaphase II?

A

kinetochore microtubules shorten to pull sister chromatids apart; sister chromatids become separate chromosomes and chromosome number doubles

95
Q

what occurs in telophase II and cytokinesis II and what structural changes occur?

A

nuclear membranes reform, nucleoli reappear, and chromosomes decondense into chromatin (only in eukaryotic cells); 4 haploid daughter cells are produced in total

96
Q

Chromosome and Chromatid Numbers: Mitosis

A

s phase: 46 chromosomes duplicate
afterward: 46 chromosomes, 92 chromatids
metaphase: line up individually
anaphase: sister split; 92 separate chromosomes, 92 chromatids
end (per cell): 46 chromosomes, 46 chromatids
DIPLOID!!

97
Q

Chromosome and Chromatid Numbers: Meiosis I

A

s phase: 46 chromosomes duplicate
afterward: 46 chromosomes, 92 chromatids
metaphase: line up doubled up (tetrad)
anaphase: homologous chromosomes split; 46 chromosomes, 92 chromatids
end (per cell): 23 chromosomes, 46 chromatids

98
Q

Chromosome and Chromatid Numbers: Meiosis II

A

metaphase: line up individually
anaphase: sister separate; 46 chromosomes, 46 chromatids
end (per cell): 23 chromosomes, 23 chromatids
HAPLOID!!

99
Q

if a question is giving me an n (4n=8) type equation and its asking what it appears as in anything that is meiosis II, then

A

the 4n=8 is applicable to meiosis I ONLY!!! so you would divide in half and that’s how it starts in meiosis II, then apply the question

Biology (5 decks)

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