Chapter 5

Question 1

What is consciousness and what are the different types?

Answer 1

—Consciousness is the awareness of internal and external stimuli.
1) Unconscious
––>Freud: most of our thoughts are out of our awareness (thoughts, desires, emotions that may be unacceptable to our conscious mind)
––> Medical: our consciousness has been interrupted by some medical condition/trauma, but the body may still show some level of reactivity
2) Subconscious Awareness: activity and processing that are just beneath the surface of our awareness (dreams, automatic processes). These subconscious emotions and thoughts are things we can access ex. a dream, and riding a bike/typing are unconscious and automatic processes that we can do but we could be conscious of it if we wanted to. This differs from fruedians unconsciousness because we cannot go and retrieve them.
3) Primary Awareness: focused state of consciousness
––> Uncontrolled Awareness: daydreaming (letting your mind wander), & automatic processing requiring minimal attention (i.e. riding a bike)
––> Controlled Awareness: where your conscious attention is focused (focusing your attention)
4) Self-Awareness: “metacognition” – thinking about your own thinking processes
5) Altered States of Awareness: any mental state that is different from normal (due to fatigue, drugs, trauma, hypnosis, etc.)

Question 2

What is mind-wandering and what are the benefits?

Answer 2

—Mind wandering refers to people’s experience of task-unrelated thoughts, thoughts that are not related to what they are intentionally trying to do at a given moment
—facilitate future planning, produce novel and creative thoughts, relive boredom, capture meaning in one’s personal experience

Question 3

What are the different types of brain waves?

Answer 3

—beta: high F (15-30 Hz) & low A. normal waking thought, alert problem solving
—alpha: med F (8-12Hz) & med A. deep relaxation, blank mind, meditation
—theta: decreasing in F and increasing in A. Light sleep
—delta: high A & low F waves < 3.5 Hz. deep sleep
We do not know whether changes in mental states cause brain wave changes or vice versa. It could also be a third factor like signals coming from subcortical structures of the brain

Question 4

What are biological rhythms?

Answer 4

—periodic fluctuations in physiological functioning that are tied to planetary rhythms
—variations in consciousness are shaped by biological rhythms
— this shows that organisms have internal biological clocks that somehow monitor the passage of time

Question 5

What are circadian rhythms?

Answer 5

—daily cycles of sleep and wakefulness
– not exactly 24 hours (can vary from 16-50 hours)
– we are generally “cued” by environmental stimuli
and are therefore able to force ourselves to follow a 24 hour clock

Question 6

What happens when you are exposed to light?

Answer 6

— some receptors in the retina Send direct inputs to a small structure in the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
—the (SCN) send signals to the nearby pineal gland, whose secretion of the hormone plays a key role in adjusting biological clocks

Question 7

What happens when you ignore circadian rhythms?

Answer 7

—Quality of sleep suffers
— causes jet leg because when you fly across several times zones your biological clock keeps time as usual even though official clock time changes you then go to sleep at the wrong time
— generally it’s easier to fly west word and lengthen your day then it is to fly east word and shorten it
— The readjustment process takes about a day for each time zone crossed when flying eastward and about 2/3 of a day per time zone one flying westward
— The rotating and late night at work shifts have four more detrimental effect then jet lag
— Rotating shift linked to a higher incidence of many physical diseases including cancer diabetes ulcers high blood pressure and heart disease
— The sleep lost when the clock is set ahead in the spring shift to daylight saving time is associated with an increase in traffic accidents during the week after the switch

Question 8

How can you realign the circadian rhythms?

Answer 8

— small doses of the hormone melatonin appears to regulate the human biological clock and can reduce the effects of jet lag by helping travellers resynchronize their biological clocks
— however the timing of the dose is crucial but calculating the optimal time is rather complicated
— carefully time exposure to bright light as a treatment to realign the circadian rhythm‘s of rotating shift workers
— The negative effects of shift rotation can be reduced if workers move through progressively later starting times and if they have longer periods between shift changes

Question 9

What is an electromyograph (EMG) and an electrooculograph (EOG)?

Answer 9

—(EMG) Records muscular activity and tension

—(EOG) Records eye movement

Question 10

What happens in stages 1 to 4 of sleep?

Answer 10

— stage 1: transition between sleep and wakefulness. breathing and heart rate slow as muscle tension and body temperature decline. The alpha waves change to theta waves EEG activity of 3.5 to 7.5 Hz. Hypnic jerks occur. EMG- we still see activity in the muscles
EOG-we see a gentle slow moving of the eyes

—stage 2: typically lasts about 10 to 25 minutes. Predominantly Theta activity which is interrupted by Sleep Spindles (occurring 2-5 times per minute; a 1-2 second waxing and waning burst of 12-14 Hz waves similar to being awake (alpha/beta activity). The sleep spindle is like the brain remembering being awake) and K complexes (more similar to low frequency, high altitude. a single, large upward wave, followed immediately by a single large downward wave). The mind is disconnected to that altered state of consciousness, their eyes are cracked open but they are not registering anything

—Stage 3: the beginning of “deep sleep”. the Theta activity is decreasing in F and increasing in A, therefore turning into Delta activity

—Stage 4: consists mainly of Delta activity (high A & low F waves < 3.5 Hz) – the brain’s metabolism slows down to approx 75%

Stages 3 and 4 are called slow-wave sleep: Slow EEG waves, lack of muscular paralysis, slow or absent eye movement, lack of genital activity

Question 11

What is the fifth stage of sleep?

Answer 11

— REM sleep: rapid eye movement
— characterized by low A & high F activity (Beta and Theta activity), Rapid EEG waves, dreams, genital activity rapid eye movements (as if the dreamer is watching the activity in the dream), and muscular paralysis
— looks really similar to the earlier stages of sleep
— REM sleep stage tends to be a deep stage of sleep because people are relatively hard to awaken from it
— irregular breathing and pulse rate, muscle tone is extremely relaxed
— Although dreaming occurs in non-REM stage dreaming is more frequent, vivid, memorable, emotional, and dramatic and rich during REM sleep
–stage 1/2 are not the deep sleep and stage 3/4 are the deep sleep

Question 12

How are sleep cycles repeated?

Answer 12

— people usually repeat the sleep cycle about 4 -6 times, with each cycle lasting an average of 90 minutes.
— The first REM is relatively short lasting only a few minutes subsequent REM periods get progressively longer peaking at around 40 to 60 minutes in length
— Additionally NREM intervals tend to get shorter and more shallow
— The architecture of sleep differs across people

Question 13

What are the age trends in sleep?

Answer 13

— ages of 15 and 24 report of the greatest sleep times in those between 35 and 44 reported the least sleep time
— infants spend much of their sleep time in REM stages than adults (REM accounts for about 50% of babies’ sleep as compared to 20% of adults sleep)
— in adults the percentage of slow wave sleep (stage 3) declines dramatically and the percentage of time spent in stage one increases slightly with these trends stronger in men than women which may contribute to increased frequency of nighttime awakening seen among the elderly
— elderly may simply need less sleep than younger adults and tolerate sleep deprivation with less impairment however they have difficulty adapting to circadian phase shifts

Question 14

What is the relation between culture and sleep?

Answer 14

— The psychological and physiological experiences of sleep does not appear to vary much across cultures
— however whites and African-Americans were more likely to report that they rarely or never enjoyed a good nights sleep than either Hispanics or Asians
— In many societies shops close and activities are curtailed in the afternoon to permit people to enjoy a 1 to 2 hour midday nap found mostly in tropical regions of the world

Question 15

What is the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)?

Answer 15

— consists of the afferent fibres running through the reticular formation that influence physiological arousal
— The ARAS projects diffusely into many areas of the cortex
— when this is cut in the brain stem of a cat the result is continuous sleep and electrical stimulation along the same pathways produces arousal and alertness

Question 16

What is the neural basis of sleep?

Answer 16

—Activity in the pons and adjacent areas in the midbrain seems to be critical to the generation of REM sleep
— The hypothalamus is involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness
— specific areas in the medulla, thalamus and basal forebrain has been noted in the control of sleep and a variety of neurotransmitters are involved

Question 17

What is the evolutionary significance of sleep?

Answer 17

— One hypothesis is that sleep evolved to conserve organisms’
energy ex. Energy consumption by the brain is reduced by about 30% during sleep in humans
— another hypothesis is that the inactivity of sleep is adaptive because it reduces exposure to predators and the consumption of precious resources
— A third hypothesis is that sleep is adaptive because it helps animals restore bodily resources depleted by waking activities
—Overall the evidence seems strongest for the energy and conservationist hypothesis

Question 18

What are the effects of sleep deprivation?

Answer 18

— research has mostly focussed on partial sleep deprivation or sleep restriction
— Sleep restriction can impair individuals’ attention, reaction time, motor coordination, and decision making and may also have negative affect on in the endocrine and immune system functioning
— drowsy driving causes about 20% of motor vehicle accidents
— unfortunately sleep deprived individuals are not particularly good at predicting if and when they will fall asleep

Question 19

What are the effects of REM deprivation?

Answer 19

—It has a little impact on daytime functioning and task performance but it does have some interesting effects on subjects’ pattern of sleeping
—In REM deprivation studies participants spontaneously shift into REM more and more frequently whereas most subjects normally go into REM about four times a night
—Once REM deprived participants are allowed to sleep without interruption they experience a “rebound effect” so they spend extra time in REM periods for 1 to 3 nights to make up for their REM deprivation
— Similar results have been observed when subject has been selectively deprived of slow wave sleep (stage 3)

Question 20

What happens if you are REM and slow wave sleep deprived?

Answer 20

—REM and slow wave sleep contribute to firming up learning that takes place during the day a process called memory consolidation
—REM may promote creative insights related to previous learning
— in one study participants worked on a challenging task requiring creativity before and after an opportunity to take a nap
— The subject were divided into those who experienced REM during their nap and those who did not
— The REM sleep group showed dramatic increases in creative performance after the nap that were not seeing in the group without REM or the groups that engaged in quiet rest

Question 21

How can sleep duration affect your health?

Answer 21

— sleep restriction appears to trigger hormonal changes that increase hunger which can increase obesity which is a risk factor of a variety of health problems
— sleep loss leads to impaired immune system functioning and increased inflammatory responses which are likely to heighten vulnerability to a variety of diseases (diabetes)
— people who consistently sleep less than seven hours exhibit an elevated mortality risk but so do those who routinely sleep more than eight hours. In fact mortality rates are especially high among those who sleep more than 10 hours
— it could be that prolonged sleep is a market for other problems such as depression or sedentary lifestyle that have negative affect on health
— however bear in mind that studies linking typical sleep duration to mortality have depended on participants’ self-report estimates of how long does they normally sleep and these subjective reports may be in accurate

Question 22

What is insomnia and what are the treatments?

Answer 22

— it occurs in three basic patterns (1) difficulty in falling asleep initially (2) difficulty in remaining asleep (3) persistent early morning awakening
— insomnia is associated with reduced productivity, increased absenteeism at work and elevated risk for accidents, anxiety and depression
— The prevalence of insomnia increases with age and is about 50% more common in women and men
— The most common approach in medical treatment of insomnia as the prescription of two classes of drugs: benzodiazepine sedatives, which were originally developed to relieve anxiety, and newer non-benzodiazepine sedatives which were designed primarily for sleep problems
— however sedatives can be a problematic long-range solution for insomnia because it is possible to overdose on sleeping pills and it has some potential for abuse
— with continue to use sedatives gradually become less effective so people need to increase their dose
— withdrawal symptoms when discontinuing sleep medications
— Studies report dramatic increases in mortality among those who use sleeping pills

Question 23

What is narcolepsy?

Answer 23

— disease marked by sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking periods (directly from wakefulness to REM sleep for a short period of about 10 to 20 minutes)
— impairments in the regulation of REM sleep is the main cause of narcolepsy
— this impairment appears to be due to the loss of orexin neurons in the hypothalamus
— however some individuals show a genetic predisposition to the disease
— stimulant drugs have been used to treat this condition with modest success

Question 24

What is sleep apnea?

Answer 24

— involves frequent reflexive gasping for air that awakens a person and disrupts sleep
— apnoea occurs when a person literally stops breathing for a minimum of 10 seconds and is usually accompanied by loud snoring
— it is common among males, older adults, post menopausal woman, obese people and those with a genetic predisposition
— it increases vulnerability to cardiovascular diseases and more than doubles ones overall mortality risk
— associated with declines in attention, memory and other aspects of cognitive functioning
— treated with lifestyle modification such as weight loss and reduced alcohol intake; drug therapy; special masks and oral devices that improve airflow, or cranial facial surgery

Question 25

What are night terrors?

Answer 25

— abrupt awakening from an REM sleep accompanied by intense autonomic arousal and feelings of panic
— usually occurs during stage for sleep early in the night
— victims typically let out a person cry, bolt upright and then stare into space and they do not usually recall a coherent dream, although they may remember a simple frightening image
—The panic normally fades quickly and a return to sleep is fairly easy
—They occur an adult but are more common in children
—Treatment may not be necessary as night terrors are often a temporary problem

Question 26

What is Somnambulism?

Answer 26

— or sleepwalking, occurs when a person arises and wanders about while remaining asleep
— tends to occur during the first three hours of sleep when individuals are in slow wave sleep (stage 3) and episodes can last for a minute or two up to 30 minutes
— appears to have a genetic predisposition but is also associated with prior sleep deprivation, increased stress, and more likely and people who use non-benzodiazepine sedatives especially Ambien
—People engaged in inappropriate aggressive or sexual behaviour and accidents and injuries are common
— sleep-walking/talking typically doesn’t happen during REM because of muscle paralysis

Question 27

What is REM sleep behaviour disorder (RBD)

Answer 27

— potentially trouble some dream enactments during REM periods
— may talk, yell, gesture, flail about or leap out of bed during their REM dreams
—many report they were being chased or attacked in their dreams
— The cause of RBD appears to be deterioration in the brain stem structures that are normally responsible for immobilization during REM periods
— A majority of people who suffer from our VD eventually go on to develop neurodegenerative disorders especially Parkinson’s disease

Question 28

What are nightmares?

Answer 28

— anxiety arousing, vivid dreams that lead to awakening usually from REM sleep, may have difficulty getting back to sleep
— significant stress in one’s life is associated with increased frequency and intensity of nightmares
— these frightening episodes are mainly a problem among children; most children have periodic nightmares but persistent nightmares may reflect an emotional disturbance

Question 29

What are usually the contents of dreams?

Answer 29

— most dreams are relatively mundane and they tend to unfold in familiar settings with a cast of characters dominated by family friends and colleagues
— we are more tolerant of logical discrepancies and implausible scenarios in our dreams but we generally move through coherent sensible realistic virtual worlds
— dreams tend to centre on classic sources of internal conflict and rarely people dream about public affairs and current events

Question 30

How does waking life affect dreams?

Answer 30

— What people dream about is affected by what is going on in their lives
— if you’re struggling with financial problems worried about an upcoming exam or sexually attracted to a classmate these themes may very well show up in your dreams
— Freud labelled this spill over as the “day residue”
— on occasion the content of dreams can also be affected by stimuli experienced while one is dreaming
— dreams happen in real time

Question 31

What are lucid dreams

Answer 31

— dreams in which people can think clearly about the circumstances of waking lies and the fact that they are dreaming yet they remain asleep in the midst of a vivid dream
— The dreamer may be able to exert some control over the dream
— it has been suggested that lucid dreaming might be useful in the treatment of nightmares however the therapist must be able to somehow control or influence the onset of the lucid dreams

Question 32

How does culture affect dreaming?

Answer 32

— in western cultures dreams are largely written off as insignificant meaningless meanderings of the unconscious
— dreams clearly play in important part in the any word culture and in many other non-western cultures
— although basic dream themes appear to be universal (falling, being pursued, having sex) The contents of dreams vary somewhat from one culture to another because people in different societies deal with a different world while awake

Question 33

What theory did Freud have about dreaming

Answer 33

— people fulfill ungratified needs from waking hours through wishful thinking in dreams
—The wishful quality of many dreams may not be readily apparent because the unconscious attempt to sensor and disguise the true meaning of dreams
— manifest content: Consists of the plot of the dream at surface level
— latent content: The hidden or disguised meaning of the events in the plot
— Freud felt that deciphering the latent content
Of a dream was a complex matter that requires intimate knowledge of the dreamers current issues and childhood conflict

Question 34

What was Rosalind Cartwright’s cognitive-problem solving theory about dreaming?

Answer 34

— propose the dreams provide an opportunity to work through every day problems
— dreams allow people to engage in creative thinking about problems because dreams are not restrained by logic or realism

Question 35

What was J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley’s activation synthesis model theory about dreaming?

Answer 35

—Neurons firing periodically in lower brain centres send random signals to the cortex which supposedly synthesizes a dream to make sense out of the signals
— this model does not assume that dreams are meaningless
— dreams are side effects of the neural activation that produces wide awake brain waves during REM
— however critics point out that dreaming occurs outside of REM sleep and that the contents of dreams are considerably more meaningful than the model would predict

Question 36

What is Hypnosis?

Answer 36

— A systematic procedure that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility
– Possibly a state of altered consciousness
– Not similar to “sleep” – as EEG measures of the
brain show electrical patterns (alpha & beta waves)
that are more similar to being awake than asleep
– Other types of brain scans (PET & fMRI) indicate that hypnosis can be distinguished from other states of consciousness
— repetitively and softly subject are told that they are getting tired drowsy or sleepy. Often the hypnotist vividly describes bodily sensations that should be occurring; subject are told that their arms are going limp their feet are getting warm their eyelids are getting heavy
— gradually most subjects succumb and become hypnotized
– 10-20% are very susceptible
– 10% are not susceptible (even if they really wanted to
– the rest of the 70-80 percent are somewhat in the middle
• Thus, individual differences in our level of suggestibility

Question 37

What four effects can be produced by Hypnosis?

Answer 37

1) anaesthesia: surprisingly effective in the treatment of both acute and chronic pain
2) Sensory distortions and hallucinations: May hear sounds or see things that are not there or fail to hear or see stimuli that are present. Sensations distorted so that something sweet taste sour or an unpleasant odour smells
fragrant
3) disinhibition: reduce inhibitions that would normally prevent subjects from acting in ways they would see as immoral or unacceptable. May occur simply because hypnotized people feel that they cannot be held responsible for her actions taken while hypnotized
4) posthypnotic suggestions and amnesia: subjects were told that they will remember nothing that happened while they were hypnotized do indeed usually remember nothing

Question 38

What is the dissociation approach to hypnosis?

Answer 38

— One popular view Is that hypnotic events occur because participants are put into a special altered state of consciousness called hypnotic trance
— Hypnotized participants have continued to display hypnotic responses when they thought they were alone and not being observed so hypnotize hypnotize participants were merely acting they would drop the act when alone
— dissociation: Splitting off of mental processes into two separate simultaneous streams of awareness
— One stream is in communication with the hypnotist and external world while the other is a difficult to detect hidden observer
— One appealing aspect of Ernest Hilgard’s theory is that divided consciousness is a common normal experience (Highway Hypnosis)

Question 39

What is the social cognitive theory of hypnosis

Answer 39

—The failure to find any special physiological changes associated with Hypnosis has led some theorists to conclude that Hypnosis is a normal state of consciousness that is simply characterized by dramatic role-playing
—Many of the seemingly amazing effects of Hypnosis have been duplicated by non-hypnotized participants or have been shown to be exaggerated
—The second line of evidence involves the demonstrations that hypnotized participants are often acting out a role. Hypnotize subjects were asked to describe their sixth birthday and they responded with detailed descriptions. When compared to the information obtained from the subjects’ parents many of the participants’ memories were inaccurate and invented

Question 40

What is meditation and the two types?

Answer 40

— refers to a family of practises that train attention to heighten awareness and bring mental processes under greater voluntary control
— focussed attention: attention is concentrated on a specific object, sound or bodily sensation. The intent in narrowing attention is to clear the mind of its clutter
—open monitoring: attention is directed to the content of one’s moment to moment experience in a non-judge mental and non-reactive way. The intent in expanding attention is to become a detached observer of the flow of one’s own sensations, thoughts, and feelings
—Mindfulness meditation has been integrated with cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)
— alpha waves and theta waves become more prominent an EEG recordings when an experienced meditator goes into a meditative state

Question 41

What are the long-term benefits of meditation?

Answer 41

—Beneficial effects on blood pressure, reduced rumination, working memory and focus, self-esteem, cognitive flexibility and relationship satisfaction, and ones sense of control, happiness, cardiovascular health, patterns of sleep, and overall physical health and well-being
—Lower levels of stress hormones and enhanced immune response; improve mental health while reducing anxiety and drug abuse
— healthcare professionals who do mindfulness meditation have shown increases in empathy, compassion and counselling skills
— increased pain tolerance; meditators greater pain tolerance was associated with increased thickness in brain regions that register pain suggesting that meditation may have the potential to modify brain structure and process
— more grey matter in several regions of the brain

Question 42

What are psychoactive drugs?

Answer 42

—Chemical substances that modify mental, emotional or behavioural functioning (alters consciousness)
– Most increase dopamine levels in the brain’s reward pathways (in the Ventral Tegmental Area and Nucleus Accumbens)
—Narcotics, sedatives, stimulants, hallucinogens, cannabis, and alcohol are all types of psychoactive drugs
–the groupings of psychoactive drugs are not universally agreed upon

Question 43

What are narcotics?

Answer 43

—Narcotics, or opiates, are drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain
— endorphins, the bodies internally produced opiate like chemical, bind to specific sub types of endorphin receptors that elevate activity in the dopamine pathways that modulate reward (essentially mimicking what the body’s naturally occurring endorphins do)
–derivative of unripe poppy pod
—examples: opium, morphine, heroin, codeine, methadone, Oxycontin, Fentanyl, Carfentanil (used to sedate large animals such as elephants)
—effects: induce relaxation, provide relief from anxiety and pain; has a euphoric effect and a “who cares” quality
– Side Effects: lethargy, nausea, impaired mental and motor functioning

Question 44

What are Depressants (Sedatives & Alcohol)?

Answer 44

— sleep inducing drugs that tend to decrease central nervous system (CNS) activation and depresses higher cognitive functioning (keeps you from doing impulsive, dangerous things so makes it harder for you to think and coordinate muscles)
– Examples: Alcohol, Barbiturates, Benzodiazepines, and also Inhalants (i.e. gasoline, amyl and butyl nitrate “poppers”)
– Effects: decreased Central Nervous System activity, relaxation, impaired thinking and motor skills

Question 45

What are stimulants?

Answer 45

—Drugs that tend to increase central nervous system activation and behavioural activities
– Examples: cocaine, amphetamines, nicotine, caffeine
– Effects: activate the Central Nervous System, feelings of euphoria/happiness, psychomotor agitation or retardation, rapid heartbeat, anxiety, paranoia, insomnia
—Amphetamines increase the release of DA and NE from synapses by either increasing the release or interfering with the reuptake while cocaine mainly blocks the reuptake of DA, NE, and serotonin

Question 46

What are hallucinogens?

Answer 46

—A diverse group of drugs that don’t really stimulate or arouse the CNS, they just distorting the sensory perception
—Examples: peyote (a cactus), phencyclidine (PCP), lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), mescaline, psilocybin
—Effects: act on the CNS and cause distortions in sensory perception, do not substantially change level of arousal euphoria, increased sensory awareness, and distorted sense of time

Question 47

what is cannabis?

Answer 47

– Often classified as Hallucinogens (but with milder
effects), may also be classified as depressants
– Examples: marijuana (the leaves of the plant), hashish
(a dried extract from the plant)
– Effects: THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) can stimulate some parts of the brain, depress other parts, act as an agonist for one type of neurotransmitter, but as an antagonist for another type of neurotransmitter, enhanced sensory experience, relaxation, anxiety and paranoia. Hashish does have a depressive effect on the CNS, but also have stimulant effects. It does sometimes lead to enhanced sensory experience (not perceiving things as accurately)
–typically, if used for a prolonged period of time, subjects can experience anxiety/paranoia past the use of cannabis so it potentially has an accumulation effect that lingers on after the drug is out of the system
— THC hijacks the brains endocannabinoid receptors leading to an increased release of endorphins and activation of the dopamine circuits associated with reward

Question 48

What is MDMA?

Answer 48

—(“ecstasy” “molly) sometimes classified as a Hallucinogen, or an Amphetamine, or a Stimulant
– MDMA (methylenedioxymethamphetamine)
—Effects: increased energy, decreased social inhibitions. Impacts the serotonin systems in the CNS and has been shown to have a lasting impact on attention, memory and learning. Also correlated with depression, anxiety, psychotic symptoms.
—Side effects include increased blood pressure, muscle tension, sweating, blurred vision, insomnia and transient anxiety

Question 49

What is tolerance?

Answer 49

— A progressive decrease in a person’s responsiveness to a drug
—Most drugs police tolerance effects but some do so more rapidly than others

Question 50

What is physical dependence?

Answer 50

—Exists when a person must continue to take a drug to avoid withdrawal illness because the body has become accustomed to the presence of
the drug
— As we use the drug, the chemical balance of the brain shifts and adjusts to the presence of the drug so we become tolerant to the drug, so in order to achieve the same high we end up requiring greater and greater doses as our brain adjusts. When we go off that drug, we’re out of balance in the wrong direction

Question 51

What is psychological dependence?

Answer 51

— when a person must continue to take a drug to satisfy intense mental emotional emotional craving for the drug
– refers to the user’s tendency to center life on the drug
— seems rare for hallucinogens

Question 52

What type of drugs increase overdose?

Answer 52

— drugs that are CNS depressants: sedatives, narcotics and alcohol carry the greatest risk of overdose
— The respiratory system stops, producing brain damage, coma and death
— usually involves a heart attack, stroke or cortical seizure

Question 53

What are the direct effects of drugs?

Answer 53

— snorting cocaine can damage nasal membranes and alter cardiovascular functioning
— long-term alcohol consumption is associated with an elevated risk for liver damage, ulcers, hypertension, stroke, heart disease, neurological disorders and some types of cancers
— chronic marijuana use increases the risk of respiratory and pulmonary disease, as well as severe psychotic disorders including schizophrenia (in individuals who have a genetic vulnerability)

Question 54

What are the indirect effects of drugs?

Answer 54

— people using stimulants tend to not eat or sleep properly and increase the risk of accidental injuries because they severely impair motor coordination
—Alcohol can play causal role in a relationship conflict

Question 55

What is the physical recuperation of sleeping?

Answer 55

– Is sleep necessary in order to repair the strain put on the body from the day’s activities?
– Giant sloth; sleeps 20 hours per day
– People; the number of hours per day exercising does not impact need for sleep
– The body does go through hormonal cycles during the sleep-wake cycle
– Thus, although sleep might be necessary, the body does appear capable of functioning when sleep deprived

Question 56

What is the mental recuperation of sleeping?

Answer 56

– Does the brain need a period of “rest” in order to
recuperate from the day’s mental activities?
– Different people have different sleep needs (some people only need only like 3-4 hours of sleep and they’ll feel refreshed, but others may need 8/9 hours of sleep in order to feel ready for the day)
– Sleep deprived people perform poorly on tasks that require higher-order brain functioning (i.e. “paying attention”) – and greater effort is required
– Sleep deprivation does slow down the ability to learn
– Therefore, some support for the mental recuperation
theory

Question 57

What happens as you progress through the stages of sleep?

Answer 57

our brainwaves become lower in F and higher in A

Question 58

How do you calculate people’s circadian rhythm?

Answer 58

the way we measure circadian rhythms is we put someone in isolation without any clocks and no windows so they can’t be cued by the rising and setting of the sun. We just let them live their life in isolation. We let them go through their natural circadian rhythm and we see that it’s not always 24 hours
What this means is that we’re constantly having to fight against that natural circadian rhythm.

Question 59

What happens if your circadian rhythm is shorter than 24hrs?

Answer 59

If you’re circadian rhythm is short (>24hrs) then you’re always ready for sleeping/waking before the clock tells you. This is referred to as morningness (wake up early and sleep early) so your peak performance happens earlier in the day before noon and you start to wind down around evening

Question 60

What happens is your circadian rhythm is longer than 24hrs?

Answer 60

If your circadian rhythm is longer than 24 hours, then that means the clock is telling you to sleep or wake up but your body isn’t ready. This is referred to as eveningness because your body is not ready to wake up in the morning even though the clock is telling you and in the night, you’re not ready to fall asleep. Your optimal time is mid afternoon

Question 61

What is the Basic Rest Activity Cycle (BRAC)?

Answer 61

– another biological “clock”; runs night & day and has approximately a 90 minute cycle
– Regulates/controls many bodily activities (eating, drinking, digestion, waste management)
– Regulates the alternating periods of REM and slow-wave sleep
– Controlled by the Pons (part of the brain stem)

Question 62

What are REM-ON neurons?

Answer 62

The Pons contains neurons that release acetylcholine to begin a period of REM sleep.
• These acetylcholine-releasing neurons are referred to as “REM-ON” neurons.
• The acetylcholine activates a series of neural circuits, these activate:
– the cerebral cortex and cause dreaming
– Rapid Eye Movements
– A set of inhibitory neurons that act to “paralyze” the body
– The REM-ON neurons are normally inhibited by serotonin-secreting neurons.

Question 63

How do drugs affect the REM-ON neurons?

Answer 63

– Drugs (i.e. LSD) that decrease the activity of these serotonin-secreting neurons will therefore cause the REM-ON neurons to be un-inhibited, thus leading to visual hallucinations (waking periods of dreaming)
– (a similar effect is caused by certain insecticides which stimulate the REM-ON neurons).
• Antidepressant drugs increase the activity of these serotonin-secreting neurons and thus suppress REM sleep.
– other substances will directly stimulate the REM-ON neurons and force them to be stimulated causing the same sort of hallucinogenic effects

Question 64

What is the psychoanalytical approach to studying dreams?

Answer 64

– Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung: analyzing the content of dreams
– Dreams represent inner conflicts and unconscious desires
– We can analyze the content of our dreams in order to better
understand these hidden parts of ourselves
– Manifest content – the actual “storyline” of the dream
– Latent content – our unconscious desires and conflicts are too “emotional” for us to deal with at face value, therefore we play these out in a symbolic story; as psychoanalysts, we can examine the story for its hidden meanings

Question 65

How does dream interpretation work?

Answer 65

– we can treat dream interpretation as a projective test (Rorschach Inkblot test). We ask the client to tell us what they think they see in the inkblot. We never just give one inkblot test, we give a series of them (at least 12). Over the course of a dozen of these interpretations by the client, you look for patters/themes that keep coming up. There’s nothing actually painted in these inkblot tests, it’s just random ink on paper.
– Or we treat the dream as a form of Thematic Apperception Test: give a whole series of ambiguous images and you get the client to tell a story based on the image and you look for themes
–in a modern version of dream interpretation, we don’t analyze the dream ourself like freud, we instead let the client tell the dream and analyze it themselves. so the client explains what they think their dreams are about and we look for themes that come up constantly in their interpretation of their dreams

Question 66

According to Sigmund Freud, what are the three levels to the mind?

Answer 66

– Conscious: governed by the Ego. This is the “I” and it is self-aware and rational
– Preconscious (subconscious): material that is accessible to the conscious mind on demand. Not normally thinking about it but it’s there to access if you want
– Personal Unconscious: half-forgotten memories, repressed traumas and emotions, unacknowledged motives and urges. According to freud, the client cannot access the personal unconscious and needs the help of a therapist to bring it out and deal with it. This also manifests itself in dreams as the latent content according to Freud

Question 67

What is collective unconscious?

Answer 67

– Carl Jung: added a fourth level
– when you look across cultures, although the surface level things are slightly different, the motives/themes that underly them are the same so cultural stories about respecting parents, not lying/stealing, etc are given to children in all cultures. Because all children in all cultures receive these type of stories, they become part of everyones unconscious. So, these sort of themes/symbols will come up in our dreams

Question 68

What are the three levels of dream interpretation?

Answer 68

– Level 1: comes from material in the pre-conscious (subconscious) mind. Dream images at this level are superficial and can be taken at face value
– Level 2: deals with material in the personal unconscious, and uses predominantly symbolic language; much of it is specific to the dreamer (latent content from Freud)
– Level 3: contains what Jung called “grand dreams”; these deal with material from the collective unconscious, and the common themes or “mythological motifs” that emerge from the collective unconscious and reappear in symbolic form in myths, symbol systems and dreams. Many archetypal dreams involve magical journeys or quests which represent the search for some aspect of ourselves. for Jung, dreaming in this mythological motifs, quests, journeys, etc represent us going into the unconscious in order to figure out who we are, our identify, who we’re supposed to be, where we’re headed in life, etc these are the kinds of things that are represented in these grand dreams we’re dreaming in these common cultural mythologies

Question 69

What does transformation/change represent in dream language?

Answer 69

– Symbolized by a bridge, or by the change from day to night, or by the change in seasons
– Transformation within the dreamer, opportunities ahead

Question 70

What do unfamiliar surroundings represent in dream language?

Answer 70

– Making the dreamer feel lost, apprehensive or full of regret
– Potentially signifying that the dreamer is not yet ready to leave an old way of life behind

Question 71

What do mazes represent in dream language?

Answer 71

– Reflects the dreamer’s descent into the unconscious
– Represents the complex defences put up by the conscious Ego to prevent unconscious wishes and desires from emerging into the conscious. The dreamer is descending into the unconscious and the conscious ego is putting up mazes as a defence so you don’t find it

Question 72

What do masks represent in dream language?

Answer 72

– Represents the way we present ourselves to the outside world and even to ourselves
– If the dreamer is unable to remove a mask, or is forced by others to wear one, this suggests that the real self is becoming increasingly obscured (feeling like we aren’t representing our real selves)

Question 73

What do strange reflections in the mirror represent in dream language?

Answer 73

– Represents an identity crisis – the sudden sense of not
knowing who we are
– Closed eyes often indicate an unwillingness to face reality

Question 74

What does falling represent in dream language?

Answer 74

– Represents anxiety that we feel that we have climbed too high in our personal life and feel that we are about to fall (feeling like we’re doing more than we’re capable of)

Question 75

What does being chased represent in dream language?

Answer 75

– Being chased by an unseen presence may signify aspects of the self that are struggling for integration into the conscious self (this represents part of ourself that is separate and we don’t want to accept or acknowledge and we’re trying to integrate into our conscious self)

Question 76

What does flying represent in dream language?

Answer 76

– A representation of the dreamer’s “higher self” (representation of our highest/best self, the self that we’re trying or striving to be, but that we also want safety and ease with this better self)
– Flying in a “vehicle” (i.e. a bed) may represent a desire for adventure, but in combination with a desire for ease and safety

Question 77

What study tested the divided consciousness theory?

Answer 77

– Hilgard told hypnotized students they would not experience pain while one arm was in ice-cold water.
– But told them that another part of their mind (a hidden part) would be aware and could signal pain by using the free hand to press a button
– Pressed button with other hand to report pain, but verbally said no pain

Question 78

What is the Ponzo Illusion and Hypnotic Blindness?

Answer 78

– two thick black lines, with red, thinner lines that extend through it and give the illusion that one of the black line’s longer than the other one
– we tell the conscious mind of hypnotized people that they cannot see the lines. We then ask them about the height of the two black lines. If they could not see the lines, they would perceive the black lines as the same height (they would not be susceptible to the illusion). They’re conscious. mind has been told they can’t see the lines so even though they say they don’t see it, they still are fooled by the illusion because their unconscious mind has not been told that they can’t see the red lines

Question 79

What is a suggestion in hypnosis?

Answer 79

– hypnotic induction is based on suggestions, that the subject is guided to respond to suggestions, and that if the subject responds to suggestions it is inferred that hypnosis has been induced.
– if they are deep in the hypnotic stage they will respond more powerfully but if they are weaker in the hypnotic stage, they may not respond as strongly
– Two types: Direct (Primary) vs. Indirect (Secondary) suggestibility

Question 80

What is a direct (primary) suggestion?

Answer 80

– the “execution of a motor movement by the subject consequent upon the repeated suggestion by the experimenter that such a movement will take place, without conscious participation in the movement on the subject’s part.”
– Body sway test: the hypnotist says “you are falling forward” if the subject is in a hypnotic state, they will think they are actually falling forward (even though they actually aren’t), so they sway backwards but then they’ll feel like they’re falling backwards, so then the move forwards and this is done over and over again. How much they sway forward and backwards is an indication of how much they are hypnotized. If they’re barely in the state of being open to suggestions, then there’ll be less swaying back and forth but if they’re really open to suggestibility, there’ll be a lot of swaying, or they will actually fall backwards

Question 81

What is indirect (secondary) suggestibility?

Answer 81

– the experience on the part of the subject of a sensation or perception consequent upon indirect/implied suggestion by the experimenter that such an experience will take place, in the absence of any objective basis for the sensation or perception.
– Odor test: the person gets a series of bottles. some bottles may be just water, so there won’t be any scent, and other bottles will have a scent. These bottles will be purposely mislabeled and if the person is actually hypnotized, then they will actually smell whatever the label is saying ex. water being labelled as vinegar, the hypnotized person will then smell vinegar because of the suggestion by the label. If they’re not in a hypnotic state, they’ll sniff and know that the bottle is mislabeled. If they’re slowly going into a hypnotic state, they might be a bit confused and say that they think they’re smelling what the label is implying

Question 82

What are the two types of responses to hypnotic control?

Answer 82

– we tell hypnotized individuals that their arm is rigid and therefore cannot be bent. We then ask them to bend their arm and we get one of two responses. We use an EMG to measure what is going on in the arm. Tremblers: really trying hard to bend the arm so it’s trembling (we can see the neural activity going to the arm using the EMG). Non-tremblers: there’s no trembling even though they say they’re try to bend it.
– tremblers: fantasizers -they’re fantasizing about how it’s supposed to be, that the bicep is trying to bend the arm and the tricep is trying to keep it straight, the fantasizer is fantasizing about how both the bicep and tricep are supposed to be struggling against each other hence both are active and fighting against each other, thus the result is a trembling arm
– non-tremblers: dissociaters -they’re not exerting any muscular control. They’ve dissociated from the arm so there’s no activity to bend or keep it straight

Question 83

What are the different applications of hypnosis?

Answer 83

• Hypnosis is widely used in psychotherapy, medicine (in surgeries, where the client doesn’t respond well to anaesthetics, hypnosis might be used as a way to dissociate from the pain), dentistry, criminal investigations, and sports.
• Hypnosis can reduce the experience of pain in some people (acute pain and chronic pain).
• Sometimes hypnosis is used to enhance people’s ability to remember (crime details: difficult because the subject could misremember. in a state of hypnosis, it is really easy to create a misinformation effect. Under hypnosis, someone may bring up false details)
• one of the biggest applications of hypnosis is in sport training to try and get the athlete to be more focused and centred and tuning out other distractions

Question 84

How does the DSM-5 classify substance related and addictive disorders?

Answer 84

– divided into two groups:
1) Substance Use Disorders
2) Substance-Induced Disorders
• i.e. intoxication, withdrawal, delirium, etc.

Question 85

What classes of drugs does the DSM-5 contain?

Answer 85

1. Alcohol
2. Caffeine
3. Cannabis
4. Hallucinogens 5. Inhalants
5. Opioids
6. Sedatives, Hypnotics, and Anxiolytics
7. Stimulants (amphetamines, cocaine, etc.) 9. Tobacco
8. Other substances

Question 86

What is the essential feature of substance use disorders in the DSM-5?

Answer 86

– The essential feature of a substance use disorder is a cluster of cognitive, behavioural, and physiological symptoms indicating that the individual continues using the substance despite significant substance-related problems.
– An important characteristic of substance use disorders is an underlying change in brain circuits that may persist beyond detoxification, particularly in individuals with severe disorders. The behavioural effects of these brain changes may be exhibited in the repeated relapses and intense drug craving when the individuals are exposed to drug-related stimuli.

Question 87

What is the diagnostic criteria of substance use disorders in the DSM-5?

Answer 87

• A problematic pattern of____ use leading to clinically
significant impairment or distress, as manifested by at least two of the following, occurring within a 12- month period.
– Impaired Control
(1) The individual may take the substance in larger
amounts or over a longer period than was originally
intended.
(2) The individual may express a persistent desire to
cut down or regulate substance use and may report multiple unsuccessful efforts to decrease or discontinue use
(3) The individual may spend a great deal of time
obtaining the substance, using the substance, or
recovering from its effects.
(4) Craving is manifested by an intense desire or
urge for the drug that may occur at any time but is more likely when in an environment where the drug previously was obtained or used
– Social Impairment
(5) Recurrent substance use may result in a failure to fulfill major role obligations at work, school, or home.
(6) The individual may continue substance use despite having persistent or recurrent social or interpersonal problems caused or exacerbated by the effects of the substance.
(7) Important social, occupational, or recreational activities may be given up or reduced because of substance use. The individual may withdraw from family activities and hobbies in order to use the substance.
– Risky Use
(8) Recurrent substance use in situations in which it is physically hazardous.
(9) The individual may continue substance use despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurrent physical or psychological problem that is likely to have been caused or exacerbated by the substance
– Pharmacological Criteria
(10) Tolerance is signaled by requiring a markedly increased dose of the substance to achieve the desired effect or a markedly reduced effect when the usual dose is consumed.
(11) Withdrawal is a syndrome that occurs when blood or tissue concentrations of a substance decline in an individual who had maintained prolonged heavy use of the substance. After developing withdrawal symptoms, the individual is likely to consume the substance to relieve the symptoms.
– Mild: Presence of 2-3 symptoms.
– Moderate: Presence of 4-5 symptoms.
– Severe: Presence of 6 or more symptoms.

Question 88

What are the two theories that explain the cause of addiction?

Answer 88

• Disease Model (diathesis-stress)
– The addiction is believed to be caused by genetic factors and/or early environment (a diathesis) that is triggered by life-stress (stress)
– describes addictions as biologically based, lifelong diseases that involve a loss of control over behaviour
• Non-Disease Model (learning)
– Addiction may be a habitual response and source of gratification that developed in social situations.

Question 89

What is the gene susceptibility to alcohol?

Answer 89

– Research has demonstrated a gene-environment interaction (diathesis-stress)
– A series of studies examined males
type 1: had a family history of mild alcoholism and was not associated with criminality
type 2: had a family history of early onset of alcoholism associated with violent and criminal
control group: similar match of participants but without a family history of alcoholism
– Individuals at genetic risk for Type 1, were more likely to be diagnosed than controls, but this was exaggerated if they had
also been exposed to high-risk environments
– Individuals at genetic risk for Type 2, were more likely to be diagnosed than controls, but early environment did not increase risk
– Demonstrating that the same environmental risk factors can have different effects depending upon the individual’s genotype.