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Porth Patho Canadian 2ed > Chapter 5 > Flashcards

Chapter 5 Flashcards

1
Q

Genes expressed in all cells fall into one of two categories, what are they?

A
  1. Operating genes that are necessary for normal function of a cell.
  2. Genes that determine the differentiating characteristics of a particular cell type.
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2
Q

Define cellular adaptation

A

Cells are able to adapt to increased work demands or threats to survival by changing their size (atrophy and hypertrophy), number (hyperplasia), and form (metaplasia)

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3
Q

Normal cellular adaptation occurs when?

A

in response to an appropriate stimulus and ceases once the need for adaptation has ceased.

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4
Q

Define atrophy

A

Decrease in cell size

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5
Q

When does atrophy occur?

A

a decrease in work demands or adverse environmental conditions

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6
Q

What is the purpose of atrophy?

A

to revert to a smaller and more efficient level of functioning. (reduce amount of oxygen consumed, protein synthesis decrease and smaller organelle/structure sizes)

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7
Q

What happens with insulin and IGF-1 (insulin-like growth factor-1) levels are low, or catabolic signals are present?

A

muscle atrophy occurs

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8
Q

What is the purpose of insulin and IGF-1 (Insulin-like growth factor 1)?

A

maintain proper muscle mass

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9
Q

What are the five grouped categories of general causes of atrophy called?

A
  1. disuse
  2. denervation
  3. loss of endocrine stimulation
  4. inadequate nutrition
  5. ischemia or decreased blood flow.
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10
Q

When does disuse atrophy occur?

A

when there is a reduction in skeletal muscle use.

an example is muscles in a cast.

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11
Q

When does denervation atrophy occur?

A

a form of disuse atrophy that occurs in the muscles of paralyzed limbs.

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12
Q

What happens when lack of endocrine stimulation occurs?

A

a form of disuse atrophy occurs, such as when women lose estrogen during menopause and their reproductive organs atrophy.

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13
Q

Is atrophy reversible or irreversible?

A

reversible

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14
Q

Is atrophy adaptive or maladaptive?

A

adaptive

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15
Q

What happens with malnutrition and decreased blood flow?

A

cells reduce size and energy as a means of survival

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16
Q

Define hypertrophy

A

increase in cell size, and with it an increase in the amount of functioning tissue mass

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17
Q

What muscles normally occur hypertrophy? why?

A

skeletal and cardiac muscle tissue, because they cannot adapt to increased workload via mitotic division and formation of more cells.

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18
Q

What is the purpose of hypertrophy?

A

increase in functional components of cell that allows it to achieve equilibrium between demand and functional capacity

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19
Q

What is an example of physiological hypertrophy

A

Increase in muscle mass associated with exercise.

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20
Q

What is an example of pathologic hypertrophy, and what are the two types it can be?

A

Result of disease conditions and may be adaptive or compensatory.

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21
Q

What is an example of adaptive hypertrophy?

A

Myocardial hypertrophy that results from valvular heart disease or hypertension

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22
Q

What is an example of compensatory hypertrophy?

A

Enlargement of remaining organ or tissue after a portion has been surgically removed or rendered inactive. (kidney is removed, other kidney grows to compensate)

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23
Q

The initiating signals for hypertrophy are complex and related to what four different examples?

A
  1. Atp depletion
  2. mechanical forces (stretching)
  3. Activation of cell degredation products
  4. Hormonal factors.
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24
Q

With regards to the heart, initiating signals are divided into what two broad categories?

A
  1. biomechanical and stretch sensitive mechanisms.

2. neurohumoral mechanisms that are associated with the release of hormones, growth factors, cytokines, and chemokines.

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25
Q

What is EGF stand for?

A

Epidermal growth factor

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26
Q

What are IGF-1 and EGF, and what are their purpose

A

specific neurohumoral ligands. To activate specific signal transduction pathways to increase protein synthesis and decrease protein degredation.

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27
Q

in a pressure overload such as hypertension, hypertrophied myocardial cells have greater length or width?

A

width

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28
Q

As muscle cells hypertrophy, what three things are synthesized more?

A

Actin and myosin filaments
Cell enzymes
ATP

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29
Q

Hypertrophied myocardial cells of well trained athletes increase in width or length?

A

Both, proportionally

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30
Q

Hypertrophied myocardial cells in dilated cardiomyopathy grow in length or width?

A

Both, but greater proportion in length over width

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31
Q

Define hyperplasia

A

Increase in number of cells in an organ

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32
Q

When does hyperplasia occur?

A

in tissues with cells that are capable of mitotic division, such as the epidermis, intestinal epitheluim and glandular tissues.

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33
Q

Hyperplasia involves activation of genes controlling what?

A

cell proliferation and the presence of intracellular messengers that control cell replication ad growth.

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34
Q

Is hyperplasia a controlled process?

A

yes

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35
Q

What are the two types of stimuli that induce hyperplasia

A

Physiologic and nonphysiologic

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36
Q

what are the two types of physiologic hyperplasia

A

hormonal and compensatory

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37
Q

Breast and uterine enlargement during pregnancy is an example of what type of hyperplasia

A

hormonal physiologic

38
Q

The regeneration of liver after partial hepatectomy is an example of what type of hyperplasia

A

compensatory hyperplasia

39
Q

Most forms of nonphysiologic hyperplasia are due to what?

A

excessive hormonal stimulation or the effects of growth factors on target tissues

40
Q

Define metaplasia

A

one adult cell type is replaced by another adult cell type

41
Q

What are the two types of cells that can be replaced in metaplasia

A

Epithelial or mesenchymal

42
Q

what is the purpose of metaplasia?

A

to provide a less specialized(more durable) cell to a chronically injured area.

43
Q

Although metaplasia resists injury, it does what to function?

A

decreases function of cell.

44
Q

Define dysplasia

A

Deranged cell growth that leads to variation in cell size, shape, and organization

45
Q

Dysplasia leads to variation in what of the cell?

A

Size
shape, and
organization

46
Q

What areas most frequently encounter dysplasia?

A

metaplastic squamous epithelium of the respiratory tract and uterine cervix

47
Q

Dysplasia is strongly implicated as a precursor of what?

A

cancer

48
Q

What are the five steps of cell progression to malignant neoplasm?

A
  1. normal cell experiences abnormal external stimuli/injury so it trust to adapt to injury.
  2. hyperplasia/hypertrophy occur from stimulus/injury.
  3. may become metaplastic where it reverts to more simple cell type to resist stress, hoever, if unsuccessful it may become dysplastic
  4. may become dysplastic, where it can still revert to normal if stimulus removes or if still has stimulus it may become neoplastic.
  5. neoplastic growth - malignant neoplasm (carcinoma situ)
49
Q

Define intracellular accumulations

A

buildup of substances that cells cannot immediately use or eliminate

50
Q

Where are substances most likely to accumulate?

A

in the cytoplasm (lysosomes mostly) or in the nucleus

51
Q

What are the three categories of intracellular accumulation?

A

Normal body substances
abnormal endogenous products
exogenous products

52
Q

how do normal body substances accumulate?

A

Production exceeds waste removal

53
Q

how do abnormal endogenous substances accumulate?

A

inborn errors of metabolism, such as if an abnormal enzyme

54
Q

when do exogenous substances accumulate

A

when an enzyme is missing

55
Q

what are pigments?

A

coloured substance that may accumulate in cells

56
Q

What is icterus and where does it come from?

A

also called jaundice (yellow discolouration), is the retention of bilirubin (endogenous bile pigment) from increase bilirubin production

57
Q

how does jaundice occur?

A

increased billirubin production from red blood cell destruction, obstruction of bile passage into the intestine, or toxic diseases that affect the livers ability to remove bilirubin from the blood

58
Q

What is lipofuscin?

A

yellow brown pigment that results from the accumulation of indigestible residues produces during normal turnover of cell structures.

59
Q

What is the wear and tear pigment?

A

lipofuscin

60
Q

Where is lipofuscin most common?

A

in heart, nerve and liver cells.

61
Q

What is coal?

A

a common exogenous pigment that causes serious lung disease.

62
Q

What is a diagnostic feature of lead poisoning?

A

formation of a blue lead line along the margins of the gum

63
Q

What are tattoos?

A

insoluble pigments introduced into the skin where they are engulfed by macrophages and persist for a lifetime.

64
Q

Do lipfuscin and mild fatty change have an effect on cell function?

A

no

65
Q

is hyperbilirubinemia reversible?

A

yes

66
Q

What does glycogen storage disease cause?

A

accumulations that result in organ dysfunction, as well as other alterations in physiologic function

67
Q

What is pathologic calcification?

A

abnormal tissue deposition of calcium salts, along with small amounts of iron, magnesium and other minerals.

68
Q

What are the two types of pathologic calcification?

A

dystrophic calcification, and

metastatic calcification

69
Q

The type of pathologic calcification that occurs in dead or dying tissue is called

A

dystrophic calcification

70
Q

The type of pathologic calcification in normal tissue is called

A

metastatic calcification

71
Q

IS dystrophic calcification visible to the naked eye?

A

yes, as deposits that range from gritty sand like grains, to firm rock hard material.

72
Q

The pathogenesis of sytrophic calcification involves the formation of what?

A

crystalline calcium phosphate

73
Q

Where are calcium deposits from dystrophic calcification derived from?

A

the bodies of dead or dying cells, as well as the circulation and interstitial fluid

74
Q

Dystrophic calcification is commonly seen in what?

A

athermatous lesions of advanced atherosclerosis,

areas of injury in the aorta and large blood vessels, and damaged hear valves

75
Q

What causes metastatic calcification?

A

increased serum calcium levels (hypercalcemia)

76
Q

where can metastatic calcification occur?

A

lungs, renal tubules and blood vessels

77
Q

What are the major causes of hypercalcemia?

A

hyperparathyroidism,
increased mobilization of calcium from bone.
vitamin d intoxication

78
Q

What are the five categories cell damage can occur?

A 
Injury from physical agents
Radiation injury
Chemical Injury
Injury from biologic agents
Injury from nutritional imbalances
79
Q

What are the three physical ways cells are damaged?

A

Mechanical forces
Extreme temperature
Electrical injuries

80
Q

how do mechanical forces injure a cell?

A

body impact with another object

81
Q

What happens to a cell with exposure to low intensity heat (43 degrees to 46 degrees)

A

causes cell injury by inducing vascular injury, accelerating cell metabolism, inactivating temperature-sensitive enzymes, and disrupting the cell membrane

82
Q

What happens to a cell in intense heat?

A

coagulation of blood vessels and tissue proteins occurs

83
Q

define coagulation

A

the act of liquid turning into a solid or semi solid product

84
Q

what happens to a cell with exposure to cold?

A

increase blood viscosity and induces vasoconstriction by direct action on blood vessels, and through reflex activity ot the sympathetic nervious system.

85
Q

What is more dangerous, ac or dc and why?

A

AC, it causes violent muscle contractions preventing the person from releasing the electrical source.

86
Q

What are the three types of radiation injury on cells?

A

Ionizing radiation
uv radiation
non-ionizing radiation

87
Q

what is energy above the uv range called? why?

A

ionizing radiation

the photons have enough energy to knock electrons off atoms and molecules

88
Q

what is the radiation energy that is at frequencies below those of visible light called?

A

non-ionizing radiation

89
Q

What is more vulnerable to radiation injury, bone marrow and intestine, or bone and skeletal mucle, why?

A

the rapidly dividing cells of bone marrow and intestine.

90
Q

what type of radiation does infrared light, ultrasound, microwaves, and laser energy fall under?

A

nonionizing radiation

91
Q

What are the three types of chemical injury?

A

drugs
Lead toxicity
mercury toxicity

Porth Patho Canadian 2ed (2 decks)

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