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Statistics > Chapter 5 > Flashcards

Chapter 5 Flashcards

1
Q

Survey Research

A
  • Describe thoughts, opinions, feelings
  • Measure naturally occurring variables
  • Allow predictions based on correlations
  • Questionnaires
  • Predetermined set of questions
  • Sample represents a population
  • Examine survey procedures and analyses for sources of bias
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2
Q

Sampling in Survey Research

A
  • Use sample to represent the larger population
  • “Representative”: similar to
  • Requires careful selection of a sample
  • Goal: Generalize survey findings from representative sample to the population
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3
Q

Biased Samples

A
  • Characteristics of the sample differ systematically from those of the population.
  • Sample over-represents or under-represents segment(s) of a population
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4
Q

Selection Bias

A

Researcher’s procedures for selecting sample cause bias

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5
Q

Response-rate bias

A

Individuals selected for the sample do not complete the survey

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6
Q

Populations

A

Set of all cases of interest

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7
Q

Sampling frame

A

We need to develop a specific list of members of the population in order to select a subset of that population

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8
Q

Sample

A

The subset of the population actually drawn from the sampling frame
*Representative of the population to the extent that it exhibits the same distribution of characteristics as the population

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9
Q

Representativeness

A

The ability to generalize from a sample to the population

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10
Q

Probability sampling

A

By selecting students randomly from the registrar’s list of students, each person (element) on the list has an equal chance of being included in the sample

  • Far superior to nonprobability sampling in ensuring that selected samples represent the population
  • All members of population have a specified chance of being selected for the survey
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11
Q

Nonprobability sampling

A

Does not guarantee that every element in the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
*Sample likely not representative of population

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12
Q

Simple random sample

A

Random selection, random-digit dialing

  • Basic technique of probability sampling
  • Every element has an equal chance of being included in the sample
    1. Define your population of interest
    2. Determine your sampling frame
    3. When a convenient list of manageable size is available, a random sample can be taken to achieve a representative sample.
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13
Q

Stratified random sample

A

The population is divided into subpopulations called strata (stratum) and random samples are drawn from each of these strate

  • Two general ways to determine how many elements should be drawn from each stratum
  • Draw equal-sized samples from each stratum
  • Draw elements for the sample on proportional basis
  • Only the stratified sample on a proportional basis would be representative.
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14
Q

Convenience sampling

A

Individuals are available and willing to respond to the survey

  • Example: magazine surveys, call-in radio surveys
  • Will result in a biased sample unless you have strong evidence confirming the representativeness of the sample
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15
Q

Four methods for obtaining survey data

A
  • Mail surveys
  • Personal interviews
  • Telephone interviews
  • Internet surveys
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16
Q

Ways to increase response rate

A
  • Questionnaire has a “personal touch”
  • Use name, not “Dear student”
  • Responding requires minimal effort
  • Topic of survey is interesting to respondents
  • Respondents identify with organization or sponsor of survey
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17
Q

“Research design”

A
  • A plan for conducting a research project

* Choose method best suited for answering a particular question

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18
Q

Three types of survey research designs

A
  • Cross-sectional design
  • Successive independent samples design
  • Longitudinal design
19
Q

Mail Surveys

A

Distribute self-administered questionnaires that respondents fill out on their own
*Advantage: they usually can be completed relatively quickly
-Avoid the problems due to interviewer bias
-Best for dealing with highly personal or embarrassing topics, especially anonymity of respondents is preserved.
Disadvantages: The cost of copying and mailing
-Self-explanatory
-The researcher has little control over the order in which the respondent answers the questions
-The order of questions may affect how respondents answer certain questions
-Low response rate-> response rate bias

20
Q

Response rate bias

A

threatens the representativeness of a sample

21
Q

Personal Interviews

A
  • Allows greater flexibility in asking questions
  • Ensure that all respondents complete the questions in the same order
  • Higher response rate
  • Allow researchers to gain more control over how the survey is administered
  • Disadvantages: Costly
  • Interviewer bias
22
Q

Interviewer Bias

A
  • Occurs when the interviewer records only selected portions of the respondent’ answers or tries to adjust the wording of a question to “fit” the respondent.
  • Protection against interviewer bias: employ highly motivated, well-paid interviewers who are trained to follow question wording exactly, to record responses accurately, and to use follow-up questions judiciously.
  • Interviewers should also be given a detailed list of instructions about how difficult or confusing situations are to be handled.
  • Interviewers should be closely supervised by the director of the survey project.
23
Q

Telephone Interviewers

A
  • Are used frequently for brief surveys
  • Random-digit dialing techniques
  • Provides better access to dangerous neighborhoods, locked buildings, and respondents available only during evening hours.
  • Can be completed more quickly
  • Interviewers can be better supervised
  • Limit to how long respondents are willing to stay on the phone
  • Respond differently when talking to a “faceless voice”
24
Q

Internet Surveys

A
  • Participants complete a questionnaire online and click on a “submit” button to have their responses recorded.
  • Permit manipulation of variables and the random assignment of participants to experimental conditions
  • Advantages: efficiency, cost, access groups
  • Disadvantages: Potential for sample biases
  • No way to generate a random sample of Internet users
  • Response rate bias and selection rate bias
25
Q

Cross-Sectional Survey

A

*Select sample from one or more populations at one time
*Survey responses are used to
-Describe population (descriptive statistics)
-Make predictions for the population (correlations)
at that one point in time
*Compare populations
*Cannot assess change over time

26
Q

Successive Independent Samples Design

A
  • A series of cross-sectional surveys over time
  • A different sample from the population completes the survey each time.
  • Each sample is selected from the same population.
  • Responses from each sample are used to describe changes in the population over time.
  • Problem: noncomparable successive samples
27
Q

Longitudinal Survey Design

A
  • Same sample of individuals completes the survey at different points in time
  • Assess how individuals change over time
  • Responses from the sample are generalized to describe changes over time in the population.
  • Problems: attrition and reactivity
28
Q

Questionnaires

A
  • Most frequently used to collect survey data
  • Measure different types of variables
  • Demographic variables using checklists
  • Preferences, opinions, and attitudes
  • -Self-report scales
  • -Rating scales (assume interval level of measurement)
  • All measures must be reliable and valid.
29
Q

Reliability

A

Consistency of measurement

30
Q

Test-retest reliability

A
  • Administer measure two times to same sample

* High correlation between the two sets of scores indicates good reliability (r > .80)

31
Q

How to improve reliability?

A
  • More items
  • Greater variability among individuals on the factor being measured
  • Testing situation free of distractions
  • Clear instructions
  • A measure can be reliable but not valid.
32
Q

Validity

A
  • the truthfulness of a measure.

* Assesses what it is intended to measure

33
Q

Construct validity

A

*Instrument measures the theoretical construct it was designed to measure.

34
Q

Convergent Validity

A

*Extent to which two measures of the same construct are correlated (go together)

35
Q

Discriminant Validity

A

*Extent to which two measures of different constructs are not correlated (do not go together)

36
Q

Constructing a Questionnaire

A
  • Best choice for selecting a measure
  • Use measure already shown to be reliable and valid in previous research.
  • If no suitable measure is found, create a questionnaire or measure.
  • Creating a reliable and valid questionnaire is not easy.
37
Q

Important first steps when constructing a questionnaire

A
  • Decide what information should be sought.
  • Decide how to administer the questionnaire.
  • Write a first draft of the questionnaire.
  • Reexamine and revise questionnaire based upon expert advice.
  • Pretest the questionnaire.
  • Review results and edit the questionnaire.
38
Q

Guidelines for Writing Survey Questions

A
  • Choose how participants will respond
  • Free-response or closed questions
  • Use simple, familiar vocabulary
  • Write clear, specific questions
  • Avoid double-barreled questions
  • Place conditional phrases at the beginning of sentences
  • Avoid leading questions and loaded questions
  • Avoid response bias
39
Q

Ordering of questions

A
  • Self-administered questionnaires
  • Place most interesting questions first
  • Personal and telephone interviews
  • Demographic questions first
  • Use funnel questions and filter questions as needed.
40
Q

Thinking Critically About Survey Research

A
  • Correspondence Between Reported and Actual Behavior
  • Survey responses may not be truthful.
  • Reactivity
  • Social desirability
  • Accept people’s responses as truthful unless there’s reason to suspect otherwise.
  • Use a multimethod approach to answering research questions.
41
Q

Mediators

A

Variables used to explain a correlation between two variables

42
Q

Moderators

A

Variables that affect direction or strength of correlation between two variables

  • may affect the direction and strength of these relationships.
  • Sex of the child
  • Population density (e.g., rural, urban)
  • Personality features of children (e.g., resilience)
43
Q

Demographic Variables

A

Describe the characteristics of the people who are surveyed

44
Q

Self-report scales

A

Measure people’s judgments about items presented on the scale or to determine differences among people on some dimension presented on the scale

Statistics (10 decks)

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